Maculopathies in Glaucoma

Abstract

In the presence of glaucoma, various changes in the macula can occur during the course of the disease itself or its treatment. Maculopathies that can be observed in glaucoma include cystoid macular edema, hypotony maculopathy, and microcystic macular edema. The following article discusses the pathophysiology, causes, course, clinical presentation, and treatment of these maculopathies.

Key words

glaucoma - maculopathy - Irvine-Gass syndrome - hypotony - microcystic macular edema - cystoid macular edema

• References/Literatur

• 1 Hood DC, Raza AS, de Moraes CG. et al. Glaucomatous damage of the macula. Prog Retin Eye Res 2013; 32: 1-21
• 2 Medeiros FA, Zangwill LM, Bowd C. et al. Evaluation of retinal nerve fiber layer, optic nerve head, and macular thickness measurements for glaucoma detection using optical coherence tomography. Am J Ophthalmol 2005; 139: 44-55
• 3 Holló G, Aung T, Cantor LB. et al. Cystoid macular edema related to cataract surgery and topical prostaglandin analogs: Mechanism, diagnosis, and management. Surv Ophthalmol 2020; 65: 496-512
• 4 Sigler EJ, Randolph JC, Kiernan DF. Longitudinal analysis of the structural pattern of pseudophakic cystoid macular edema using multimodal imaging. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2016; 254: 43-51
• 5 Hernstadt DJ, Husain R. Effect of prostaglandin analogue use on the development of cystoid macular edema after phacoemulsification using STROBE statement methodology. J Cataract Refract Surg 2017; 43: 564-569
• 6 Miyake K, Miyake T, Miyake C. et al. Outward transport of fluorescein from the vitreous in aphakic eyes. Br J Ophthalmol 1985; 69: 428-432
• 7 Miyake K, Shirasawa E, Hikita M. Active transport system of prostaglandins: Clinical implications and considerations. J Cataract Refract Surg 1992; 18: 100-105
• 8 Jiang J, Shihan MH, Wang Y. et al. Lens Epithelial Cells Initiate an Inflammatory Response Following Cataract Surgery. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2018; 59: 4986-4997
• 9 Miyake K, Ibaraki N. Prostaglandins and Cystoid Macular Edema. Surv Ophthalmol 2002; 47 (Suppl. 01) S203-S218
• 10 Arcieri ES, Pierre Filho PT, Wakamatsu TH. et al. The effects of prostaglandin analogues on the blood aqueous barrier and corneal thickness of phakic patients with primary open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Eye (Lond) 2008; 22: 179-183
• 11 Lee KM, Lee EJ, Kim TW. et al. Pseudophakic Macular Edema in Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma: A Prospective Study Using Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography. Am J Ophthalmol 2017; 179: 97-109
• 12 Henderson BA, Kim JY, Ament CS. et al. Clinical pseudophakic cystoid macular edema. Risk factors for development and duration after treatment. J Cataract Refract Surg 2007; 33: 1550-1558
• 13 Yeh PC, Ramanathan S. Latanoprost and clinically significant cystoid macular edema after uneventful phacoemulsification with intraocular lens implantation. J Cataract Refract Surg 2002; 28: 1814-1818
• 14 Wendel C, Zakrzewski H, Carleton B. et al. Association of Postoperative Topical Prostaglandin Analog or Beta-Blocker Use and Incidence of Pseudophakic Cystoid Macular Edema. J Glaucoma 2018; 27: 402-406
• 15 Arcieri ES, Santana A, Rocha FN. et al. Blood-aqueous barrier changes after the use of prostaglandin analogues in patients with pseudophakia and aphakia: a 6-month randomized trial. Arch Ophthalmol 2005; 123: 186-192
• 16 Matsuura K, Uotani R, Terasaka Y. Subtenon triamcinolone injection for postoperative cystoid macular edema associated with tafluprost. Clin Ophthalmol 2013; 7: 1525-1528
• 17 Agange N, Mosaed S. Prostaglandin-Induced Cystoid Macular Edema Following Routine Cataract Extraction. J Ophthalmol 2010; 2010: 690707
• 18 Makri OE, Tsekouras IK, Plotas P. et al. Cystoid Macular Edema due to Accidental Latanoprost Overdose after Uncomplicated Phacoemulsification. Curr Drug Saf 2018; 13: 208-210
• 19 Altintas O, Yuksel N, Karabas VL. et al. Cystoid macular edema associated with latanoprost after uncomplicated cataract surgery. Eur J Ophthalmol 2005; 15: 158-161
• 20 Chu CJ, Johnston RL, Buscombe C. et al. Risk Factors and Incidence of Macular Edema after Cataract Surgery. Ophthalmology 2016; 123: 316-323
• 21 Schaub F, Adler W, Koenig MC. et al. Combined Ab Interno Glaucoma Surgery Does not Increase the Risk of Pseudophakic Cystoid Macular Edema in Uncomplicated Eyes. J Glaucoma 2017; 26: 227-232
• 22 Moghimi S, Zandian M, Latifi G. et al. Topical latanoprost does not cause macular thickening after uncomplicated cataract surgery. J Ophthalmic Vis Res 2012; 7: 289-294
• 23 Guo S, Patel S, Baumrind B. et al. Management of pseudophakic cystoid macular edema. Surv Ophthalmol 2014; 60: 123-137
• 24 Shelsta HN, Jampol LM. Pharmacologic Therapy of Pseudophacic Cystoid Macular Edema: 2010 Update. Retina 2011; 31: 4-12
• 25 Pepple KL, Nguyen MH, Pakzad-Vaezi K. et al. Response of Inflammatory Cystoid Macular Edema to Treatment using Oral Acetazolamide. Retina 2019; 39: 948-955
• 26 Karasheva G, Goebel W, Klink T. et al. Changes in macular thickness and depth of anterior chamber in patients after filtration surgery. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2003; 241: 170-175
• 27 Sesar A, Cavar I, Sesar AP. et al. Macular thickness after glaucoma filtration surgery. Coll Antropol 2013; 37: 841-845
• 28 Manabe K, Matsuoka Y, Tanito M. Incidence of macular edema development after filtration surgery. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2020; 258: 1343-1345
• 29 Netland PA, Sarkisian SR, Moster MR. et al. Randomized, Prospective, Comparative Trial of EX-PRESS Glaucoma Filtration Device versus Trabeculectomy (XVT Study). Am J Ophthalmol 2014; 157: 433-440.e3
• 30 Gedde SJ, Herndon LW, Brandt JD. et al. Postoperative Complications in the Tube Versus Trabeculectomy (TVT) Study During Five Years of Follow-up. Am J Ophthalmol 2012; 153: 804-814.e1
• 31 Budenz DL, Barton K, Feuer WJ. et al. Treatment Outcomes in the Ahmed Baerveldt Comparison Study after 1 Year of Follow-up. Ophthalmology 2011; 118: 443-452
• 32 Barton K, Feuer WJ, Budenz DL. et al. Three-year Treatment Outcomes in the Ahmed Baerveldt Comparison Study. Ophthalmology 2014; 121: 1547-1557.e1
• 33 Erokhina M, Szurman P, Dimopoulos S. et al. Postoperative cystoid macular oedema after non‐penetrating glaucoma surgery. Acta Ophthalmol 2021; 99: e1534-e1535
• 34 Abbas A, Agrawal P, King AJ. Exploring literature-based definitions of hypotony following glaucoma filtration surgery and the impact on clinical outcomes. Acta Ophthalmol 2017; 96: e285-e289
• 35 Schubert HD. Postsurgical hypotony: relationship to fistulization, inflammation, chorioretinal lesions, and the vitreous. Surv Ophthalmol 1996; 41: 97-125
• 36 Fannin LA, Schiffman JC, Budenz DL. Risk factors for hypotony maculopathy. Ophthalmology 2003; 110: 1185-1191
• 37 Thomas M, Vajaranant TS, Aref AA. Hypotony Maculopathy: Clinical Presentation and Therapeutic Methods. Ophthalmol Ther 2015; 4: 79-88
• 38 Costa VP, Arcieri ES. Hypotony maculopathy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2007; 85: 586-597
• 39 Mégevand GS, Salmon JF, Scholtz RP. et al. The Effect of Reducing the Exposure Time of Mitomycin C in Glaucoma Filtering Surgery. Ophthalmology 1995; 102: 84-90
• 40 Akarsu C, Onol M, Hasanreisoglu B. Postoperative 5-fluorouracil versus intraoperative mitomycin C in high-risk glaucoma filtering surgery: extended follow up. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2003; 31: 199-205
• 41 Shields MB, Scroggs MW, Sloop CM. et al. Clinical and Histopathologic Observations Concerning Hypotony After Trabeculectomy with Adjunctive Mitomycin C. Am J Ophthalmol 1993; 116: 673-683
• 42 Bitrian E, Song BJ, Caprioli J. Bleb Revision for Resolution of Hypotony Maculopathy Following Primary Trabeculectomy. Am J Ophthalmol 2014; 158: 597-604.e1
• 43 Zacharia PT, Schuman JS. Combined phacoemulsification and trabeculectomy with mitomycin-C. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers 1997; 28: 739-744
• 44 Nuyts RM, Felten PC, Pels E. et al. Histopathologic effects of mitomycin C after trabeculectomy in human glaucomatous eyes with persistent hypotony. Am J Ophthalmol 1994; 118: 225-237
• 45 Sihota R, Dada T, Gupta DS. et al. Conjunctival Dysfunction and Mitomycin C-Induced Hypotony. J Glaucoma 2000; 9: 392-397
• 46 Sahoo NK, Balijepalli P, Singh SR. et al. Retina and glaucoma: surgical complications. Int J Retina Vitreous 2018; 4: 29
• 47 Dellaporta A. [Creasing of retina in hypotonia]. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd Augenarztl Fortbild 1954; 125: 672-678
• 48 Kokame GT, de Leon MD, Tanji T. Serous retinal detachment and cystoid macular edema in hypotony maculopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 2001; 131: 384-386
• 49 Sakamoto M, Matsumoto Y, Mori S. et al. Excessive scleral shrinkage, rather than choroidal thickening, is a major contributor to the development of hypotony maculopathy after trabeculectomy. PLoS One 2018; 13: e0191862
• 50 Shimokawa S, Nakao S, Murakami Y. et al. Serous retinal detachment accompanied by pachychoroid in hypotony maculopathy after trabeculectomy for diabetic neovascular glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep 2020; 18: 100682
• 51 Sen S, Parija S, Nayak B. Hypotony maculopathy: a surgeonʼs nightmare. BMJ Case Rep 2019; 12: e231272
• 52 Kao ST, Lee SH, Chen YC. Late-onset Hypotony Maculopathy After Trabeculectomy in a Highly Myopic Patient With Juvenile Open-angle Glaucoma. J Glaucoma 2017; 26: e137-e141
• 53 Harper AR, Summers JA. The dynamic sclera: Extracellular matrix remodeling in normal ocular growth and myopia development. Exp Eye Res 2015; 133: 100-111
• 54 Gass J. Hypotony Maculophthy. In: Bellows J. ed. Contempory Ophthalmology. Honoring Sir Steward Duke-Elder. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1972: 343-366
• 55 Matsumoto Y, Fujihara M, Kanamori A. et al. Effect of axial length reduction after trabeculectomy on the development of hypotony maculopathy. Jpn J Ophthalmol 2014; 58: 267-275
• 56 Vijaya L, Manish P, Ronnie G. et al. Management of complications in glaucoma surgery. Indian J Ophthalmol 2011; 59 (Suppl. 01) S131-S140
• 57 Smith MF, Magauran RG, Betchkal J. et al. Treatment of Postfiltration Bleb Leaks with Autologous Blood. Ophthalmology 1995; 102: 868-871
• 58 Leen MM, Moster MR, Katz LJ. et al. Management of overfiltering and leaking blebs with autologous blood injection. Arch Ophthalmol 1995; 113: 1050-1055
• 59 Burnstein A, WuDunn D, Ishii Y. et al. Autologous blood injection for late-onset filtering bleb leak. Am J Ophthalmol 2001; 132: 36-40
• 60 Samuelson TW, Liaboe C. Management of hypotony-related maculopathy after combined phacoemulsification and trabeculectomy: January consultation #1. J Cataract Refract Surg 2021; 47: 130
• 61 Rauscher FM, Barton K, Budenz DL. et al. Long-term Outcomes of Amniotic Membrane Transplantation for Repair of Leaking Glaucoma Filtering Blebs. Am J Ophthalmol 2007; 143: 1052-1054
• 62 Burnstein AL, WuDunn D, Knotts SL. et al. Conjunctival advancement versus nonincisional treatment for late-onset glaucoma filtering bleb leaks. Ophthalmology 2002; 109: 71-75
• 63 Cohen SM, Flynn jr. HW, Palmberg PF. et al. Treatment of hypotony maculopathy after trabeculectomy. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers 1995; 26: 435-441
• 64 Delgado MF, Daniels S, Pascal S. et al. Hypotony maculopathy: improvement of visual acuity after 7 years. Am J Ophthalmol 2001; 132: 931-933
• 65 Abegg M, Dysli M, Wolf S. et al. Microcystic Macular Edema Retrograde Maculopathy Caused by Optic Neuropathy. Ophthalmology 2014; 121: 142-149
• 66 Murata N, Togano T, Miyamoto D. et al. Clinical evaluation of microcystic macular edema in patients with glaucoma. Eye (Lond) 2016; 30: 1502-1508
• 67 Burggraaff MC, Trieu J, de Vries-Knoppert WA. et al. The clinical spectrum of microcystic macular edema. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2014; 55: 952-961
• 68 Abegg M, Zinkernagel M, Wolf S. Microcystic macular degeneration from optic neuropathy. Brain 2012; 135: e225
• 69 Gelfand JM, Green AJ. Reply: microcystic macular degeneration from optic neuropathy and Reply: microcystic macular oedema confirmed, but not specific for multiple sclerosis. Brain 2012; 135: e227
• 70 Abegg M, Dysli M, Wolf S. et al. Microcystic Macular Edema Retrograde Maculopathy Caused by Optic Neuropathy. Ophthalmology 2014; 121: 142-149
• 71 Wolff B, Basdekidou C, Vasseur V. et al. Retinal inner nuclear layer microcystic changes in optic nerve atrophy: a novel spectral-domain OCT finding. Retina 2013; 33: 2133-2138
• 72 Hasegawa T, Akagi T, Yoshikawa M. et al. Microcystic Inner Nuclear Layer Changes and Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Defects in Eyes with Glaucoma. PLoS One 2015; 10: e0130175
• 73 Mahmoudinezhad G, Salazar D, Morales E. et al. Risk factors for microcystic macular oedema in glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol 2021;
• 74 Wen JC, Freedman SF, El-Dairi MA. et al. Microcystic Macular Changes in Primary Open-angle Glaucoma. J Glaucoma 2016; 25: 258-262
• 75 Barboni P, Carelli V, Savini G. et al. Microcystic macular degeneration from optic neuropathy: not inflammatory, not trans-synaptic degeneration. Brain 2013; 136: e239
• 76 Brandt AU, Oberwahrenbrock T, Kadas EM. et al. Dynamic formation of macular microcysts independent of vitreous traction changes. Neurology 2014; 83: 73-77