Use of Coffee, Caffeinated Drinks and Caffeine Tablets for Cognitive Enhancement in Pupils and Students in Germany

A. G. Franke; M. Christmann; C. Bonertz; A. Fellgiebel; M. Huss; K. Lieb

doi:10.1055/s-0031-1286347

Pharmacopsychiatry, Table of Contents

Pharmacopsychiatry 2011; 44(07): 331-338
DOI: 10.1055/s-0031-1286347

Original Paper

Use of Coffee, Caffeinated Drinks and Caffeine Tablets for Cognitive Enhancement in Pupils and Students in Germany

A. G. Franke

¹Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Centre Mainz, Mainz, Germany

,

M. Christmann

¹Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Centre Mainz, Mainz, Germany

,

C. Bonertz

¹Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Centre Mainz, Mainz, Germany

,

A. Fellgiebel

¹Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Centre Mainz, Mainz, Germany

,

M. Huss

²Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Centre Mainz, Mainz, Germany

,

K. Lieb

¹Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Centre Mainz, Mainz, Germany

› Author Affiliations

Abstract

Introduction:

Substance use for cognitive enhancement (CE) is a topic of increasing importance. There are only few data about substances, prevalence rates and factors associated with CE. The aim of this study was to assess first data about the use of coffee, caffeinated drinks and caffeine tablets for CE at school and university.

Methods:

A self-report questionnaire was developed to analyze 1 547 pupils and students about their use of coffee, caffeine tablets, and caffeinated drinks for CE and factors associated with this use.

Results:

Lifetime, past-year, and past-month prevalence for the use of coffee for CE was 53.2%, 8.5%, and 6.3%, for the use of caffeinated drinks 39%, 10.7%, and 6.3%, and for the use of caffeine tablets 10.5%, 3.8%, and 0.8%. Use of caffeinated substances for CE was influenced by gender and school grades.

Discussion:

The use of coffee and caffeinated drinks for CE was found to be widespread in the surveyed population. Although the use of caffeine tablets was found to be smaller than the above-mentioned means, it still indicates a relatively high disposition for using tablets for purposes of CE.

Key words

cognitive enhancement - caffeine - coffee - caffeinated drink(s) - caffeine tablets

Full Text

References

References
1 Benowitz NL. Clinical pharmacology of caffeine. Annu Rev Med 1990; 41: 277-288
2 Hughes JR, Oliveto AH. A systematic survey of caffeine intake in Vermont. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 1997; 5: 393-398
3 Hughes JR, Oliveto AH, Helzer JE et al. Should caffeine abuse, dependence, or withdrawal be added to DSM-IV and ICD-10?. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149: 33-40
4 Schreiber GB, Maffeo CE, Robins M et al. Measurement of coffee and caffeine intake: implications for epidemiologic research. Prev Med 1988; 17: 280-294
5 Morgan KJ, Stults VJ, Zabik ME. Amount and dietary sources of caffeine and saccharin intake by individuals ages 5 to 18 years. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 1982; 2: 296-307
6 Ferre S, Ciruela F, Borycz J et al. Adenosine A1-A2A receptor heteromers: new targets for caffeine in the brain. Front Biosci 2008; 13: 2391-2399
7 Fisone G, Borgkvist A, Usiello A. Caffeine as a psychomotor stimulant: mechanism of action. Cell Mol Life Sci 2004; 61: 857-872
8 Marley E, Nistico G. Effects of catecholamines and adenosine derivatives given into the brain of fowls. Br J Pharmacol 1972; 46: 619-636
9 Nehlig A, Daval JL, Debry G. Caffeine and the central nervous system: mechanisms of action, biochemical, metabolic and psychostimulant effects. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 1992; 17: 139-170
10 Taketo M, Matsuda H, Yoshioka T. Calcium-independent inhibition of GABA(A) current by caffeine in hippocampal slices. Brain Res 2004; 1016: 229-239
11 Franke AG, Lieb K. Pharmacological neuroenhancement and brain doping: Chances and risks. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2011; 53: 853-859
12 Beaumont M, Batejat D, Coste O et al. Recovery after prolonged sleep deprivation: residual effects of slow-release caffeine on recovery sleep, sleepiness and cognitive functions. Neuropsychobiology 2005; 51: 16-27
13 Beaumont M, Batejat D, Pierard C et al. Slow release caffeine and prolonged (64-h) continuous wakefulness: effects on vigilance and cognitive performance. J Sleep Res 2001; 10: 265-276
14 Kamimori GH, Penetar DM, Headley DB et al. Effect of three caffeine doses on plasma catecholamines and alertness during prolonged wakefulness. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 56: 537-544
15 Lagarde D, Batejat D, Sicard B et al. Slow-release caffeine: a new response to the effects of a limited sleep deprivation. Sleep 2000; 23: 651-661
16 Penetar D, McCann U, Thorne D et al. Caffeine reversal of sleep deprivation effects on alertness and mood. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1993; 112: 359-365
17 Killgore WD, Rupp TL, Grugle NL et al. Effects of dextroamphetamine, caffeine and modafinil on psychomotor vigilance test performance after 44 h of continuous wakefulness. J Sleep Res 2008; 17: 309-321
18 Wesensten NJ, Belenky G, Kautz MA et al. Maintaining alertness and performance during sleep deprivation: modafinil versus caffeine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2002; 159: 238-247
19 Gilliland K, Bullock W. Caffeine: a potential drug of abuse. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse 1983; 3: 53-73
20 Satel S. Is caffeine addictive? − a review of the literature. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2006; 32: 493-502
21 Franke AG, Bonertz C, Christmann M et al. Non-medical use of prescription stimulants and illicit use of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in pupils and students in Germany. Pharmacopsychiatry 2011; 44: 60-66
22 Wilens TE, Adler LA, Adams J et al. Misuse and diversion of stimulants prescribed for ADHD: a systematic review of the literature. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008; 47: 21-31
23 Maher B. Poll results: look who’s doping. Nature 2008; 452 (7188) 674-675
24 Franke AG, Bonertz C, Christmann M et al. Attitudes towards cognitive enhancement in users and non-users of stimulants for cognitive enhancement. Am J Bioeth. Primary Research (accepted)
25 Babcock Q, Byrne T. Student perceptions of methylphenidate abuse at a public liberal arts college. J Am Coll Health 2000; 49: 143-145
26 Hall KM, Irwin MM, Bowman KA et al. Illicit use of prescribed stimulant medication among college students. J Am Coll Health 2005; 53: 167-174
27 McCabe SE, Boyd CJ. Sources of prescription drugs for illicit use. Addict Behav 2005; 30: 1342-1350
28 McCabe SE, Knight JR, Teter CJ et al. Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction 2005; 100: 96-106
29 McCabe SE, Teter CJ, Boyd CJ. The use, misuse and diversion of prescription stimulants among middle and high school students. Subst Use Misuse 2004; 39: 1095-1116
30 Teter CJ, McCabe SE, Cranford JA et al. Prevalence and motives for illicit use of prescription stimulants in an undergraduate student sample. J Am Coll Health 2005; 53: 253-262
31 Deutsche Angestelltenkrankenkasse (DAK) . Gesundheitsreport 2009. Analyse der Arbeitsunfähigkeitsdaten. Schwerpunktthema Doping am Arbeitsplatz. Berlin/Hamburg: 2009
32 Sahakian B, Morein-Zamir S. Professor’s little helper. Nature 2007; 450 (7173) 1157-1159
33 de Jongh R, Bolt I, Schermer M et al. Botox for the brain: enhancement of cognition, mood and pro-social behavior and blunting of unwanted memories. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008; 32: 760-776
34 Poulin C. From attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder to medical stimulant use to the diversion of prescribed stimulants to non-medical stimulant use: connecting the dots. Addiction 2007; 102: 740-751
35 Nestle M. Soft drink “pouring rights”: marketing empty calories to children. Public Health Rep 2000; 115: 308-319
36 Miller KE. Wired: energy drinks, jock identity, masculine norms, and risk taking. J Am Coll Health 2008; 56: 481-489
37 Barone JJ, Roberts HR. Caffeine consumption. Food Chem Toxicol 1996; 34: 119-129
38 Gilbert RM. Caffeine consumption. Prog Clin Biol Res 1984; 158: 185-213
39 Killgore WD, Kahn-Greene ET, Grugle NL et al. Sustaining executive functions during sleep deprivation: A comparison of caffeine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil. Sleep 2009; 32: 205-216
40 Alford C, Cox H, Wescott R. The effects of Red Bull energy drink on human performance and mood. Amino Acids 2001; 21: 139-150
41 Haskell CF, Kennedy DO, Wesnes KA et al. Cognitive and mood improvements of caffeine in habitual consumers and habitual non-consumers of caffeine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 179: 813-825
42 Loke WH. Effects of caffeine on mood and memory. Physiol Behav 1988; 44: 367-372
43 Rao A, Hu H, Nobre AC. The effects of combined caffeine and glucose drinks on attention in the human brain. Nutr Neurosci 2005; 8: 141-153
44 Rogers PJ, Smith JE, Heatherley SV et al. Time for tea: mood, blood pressure and cognitive performance effects of caffeine and theanine administered alone and together. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 195: 569-577
45 Yu G, Maskray V, Jackson SH et al. A comparison of the central nervous system effects of caffeine and theophylline in elderly subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1991; 32: 341-345
46 Wesensten NJ, Killgore WD, Balkin TJ. Performance and alertness effects of caffeine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil during sleep deprivation. J Sleep Res 2005; 14: 255-266
47 Wu LT, Schlenger WE. Psychostimulant dependence in a community sample. Subst Use Misuse 2003; 38: 221-248
48 Shohet KL, Landrum RE. Caffeine consumption questionnaire: a standardized measure for caffeine consumption in undergraduate students. Psychol Rep 2001; 89: 521-526
49 White BP, Becker-Blease KA, Grace-Bishop K. Stimulant medication use, misuse, and abuse in an undergraduate and graduate student sample. J Am Coll Health 2006; 54: 261-268
50 Juliano LM, Griffiths RR. A critical review of caffeine withdrawal: empirical validation of symptoms and signs, incidence, severity, and associated features. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 176: 1-29
51 Arzneimittelfachinformation. Coffeinum N 0,2 g, Tabletten. Mylan Dura; Berlin: 2008