Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction in High-Risk Settings

Mohamed A. Omer; Jose E. Exaire; Jacob C. Jentzer; Yader B. Sandoval; Mandeep Singh; Charles R. Cagin; Islam Y. Elgendy; Tahir Tak

doi:10.1055/s-0041-1723941

International Journal of Angiology, Table of Contents

Int J Angiol 2021; 30(01): 053-066
DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1723941

Review Article

Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction in High-Risk Settings

Authors

Mohamed A. Omer

¹Cardiovascular Services, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, Wisconsin

²Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Jose E. Exaire

¹Cardiovascular Services, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, Wisconsin

²Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Jacob C. Jentzer

³Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Yader B. Sandoval

³Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Mandeep Singh

³Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Charles R. Cagin

¹Cardiovascular Services, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, Wisconsin

²Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Islam Y. Elgendy

⁴Division of Cardiology, Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Doha, Qatar
Tahir Tak

¹Cardiovascular Services, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, Wisconsin

²Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota

Abstract

Despite the widespread adoption of primary percutaneous intervention and modern antithrombotic therapy, ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) remains the leading cause of death in the United States and remains one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Certain high-risk patients present a challenge for diagnosis and treatment. The widespread adoption of primary percutaneous intervention in addition to modern antithrombotic therapy has resulted in substantial improvement in the short- and long-term prognosis following STEMI. In this review, we aim to provide a brief analysis of the state-of-the-art treatment for patients presenting with STEMI, focusing on cardiogenic shock, current treatment and controversies, cardiac arrest, and diagnosis and treatment of mechanical complications, as well as multivessel and left main-related STEMI.

Keywords

cardiac arrest - multivessel - STEMI - myocardial infarction - cardiogenic shock

Full Text

References

References
1 Benjamin EJ, Muntner P, Alonso A. et al; American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2019 Update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2019; 139 (10) e56-e528
2 Fox KA, Steg PG, Eagle KA. et al; GRACE Investigators. Decline in rates of death and heart failure in acute coronary syndromes, 1999-2006. JAMA 2007; 297 (17) 1892-1900
3 Yeh RW, Sidney S, Chandra M, Sorel M, Selby JV, Go AS. Population trends in the incidence and outcomes of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2010; 362 (23) 2155-2165
4 Virani SS, Alonso A, Benjamin EJ. et al; American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2020 Update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2020; 141 (09) e139-e596
5 Krumholz HM, Normand ST, Wang Y. Twenty-year trends in outcomes for older adults with acute myocardial infarction in the United States. JAMA Netw Open 2019; 2 (03) e191938
6 Peterson ED, Shah BR, Parsons L. et al. Trends in quality of care for patients with acute myocardial infarction in the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction from 1990 to 2006. Am Heart J 2008; 156 (06) 1045-1055
7 Omer MA, Tyler JM, Henry TD. et al. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of STEMI patients with cardiogenic shock and cardiac arrest. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2020; 13 (10) 1211-1219
8 Zeymer U, Bueno H, Granger CB. et al. Acute Cardiovascular Care Association position statement for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with acute myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock: a document of the Acute Cardiovascular Care Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care 2020; 9 (02) 183-197
9 Hochman JS, Sleeper LA, Webb JG. et al. Early revascularization in acute myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock. SHOCK Investigators. Should we emergently revascularize occluded coronaries for cardiogenic shock. N Engl J Med 1999; 341 (09) 625-634
10 Thiele H, Akin I, Sandri M. et al; CULPRIT-SHOCK Investigators. PCI strategies in patients with acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock. N Engl J Med 2017; 377 (25) 2419-2432
11 Wayangankar SA, Bangalore S, McCoy LA. et al. Temporal trends and outcomes of patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions for cardiogenic shock in the setting of acute myocardial infarction: a report from the CathPCI registry. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2016; 9 (04) 341-351
12 Kolte D, Khera S, Aronow WS. et al. Trends in incidence, management, and outcomes of cardiogenic shock complicating ST-elevation myocardial infarction in the United States. J Am Heart Assoc 2014; 3 (01) e000590
13 Harjola VP, Lassus J, Sionis A. et al; CardShock Study Investigators, GREAT network. Clinical picture and risk prediction of short-term mortality in cardiogenic shock. Eur J Heart Fail 2015; 17 (05) 501-509
14 Auffret V, Cottin Y, Leurent G. et al; ORBI and RICO Working Groups. Predicting the development of in-hospital cardiogenic shock in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction treated by primary percutaneous coronary intervention: the ORBI risk score. Eur Heart J 2018; 39 (22) 2090-2102
15 Baran DA, Grines CL, Bailey S. et al. SCAI clinical expert consensus statement on the classification of cardiogenic shock: this document was endorsed by the American College of Cardiology (ACC), the American Heart Association (AHA), the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) in April 2019. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2019; 94 (01) 29-37
16 Jentzer JC, van Diepen S, Barsness GW. et al. Cardiogenic shock classification to predict mortality in the cardiac intensive care unit. J Am Coll Cardiol 2019; 74 (17) 2117-2128
17 van Diepen S, Katz JN, Albert NM. et al; American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing, Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research, and Mission: Lifeline. Contemporary management of cardiogenic shock: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2017; 136 (16) e232-e268
18 Pöss J, Köster J, Fuernau G. et al. Risk stratification for patients in cardiogenic shock after acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 69 (15) 1913-1920
19 Kapur NK, Alkhouli MA, DeMartini TJ. et al. Unloading the left ventricle before reperfusion in patients with anterior ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction. Circulation 2019; 139 (03) 337-346
20 Thiele H, Ohman EM, de Waha-Thiele S, Zeymer U, Desch S. Management of cardiogenic shock complicating myocardial infarction: an update 2019. Eur Heart J 2019; 40 (32) 2671-2683
21 Bauer T, Zeymer U, Hochadel M. et al. Use and outcomes of multivessel percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with acute myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock (from the EHS-PCI Registry). Am J Cardiol 2012; 109 (07) 941-946
22 Mylotte D, Morice MC, Eltchaninoff H. et al. Primary percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with acute myocardial infarction, resuscitated cardiac arrest, and cardiogenic shock: the role of primary multivessel revascularization. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2013; 6 (02) 115-125
23 Park JS, Cha KS, Lee DS. et al; Korean Acute Myocardial Infarction Registry Investigators. Culprit or multivessel revascularisation in ST-elevation myocardial infarction with cardiogenic shock. Heart 2015; 101 (15) 1225-1232
24 Kolte D, Sardar P, Khera S. et al. Culprit vessel-only versus multivessel percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with cardiogenic shock complicating ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction: a collaborative meta-analysis. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2017; 10 (11) e005582
25 Cavender MA, Milford-Beland S, Roe MT, Peterson ED, Weintraub WS, Rao SV. Prevalence, predictors, and in-hospital outcomes of non-infarct artery intervention during primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (from the National Cardiovascular Data Registry). Am J Cardiol 2009; 104 (04) 507-513
26 de Waha S, Jobs A, Eitel I. et al. Multivessel versus culprit lesion only percutaneous coronary intervention in cardiogenic shock complicating acute myocardial infarction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care 2018; 7 (01) 28-37
27 Thiele H, Akin I, Sandri M. et al; CULPRIT-SHOCK Investigators. One-year outcomes after PCI strategies in cardiogenic shock. N Engl J Med 2018; 379 (18) 1699-1710
28 Khera R, Secemsky EA, Wang Y. et al. Revascularization practices and outcomes in patients with multivessel coronary artery disease who presented with acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock in the US, 2009-2018. JAMA Intern Med 2020; 180 (10) 1317-1327
29 Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B. et al. 2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines. Circulation 2013; 128 (16) 1810-1852
30 De Backer D, Biston P, Devriendt J. et al; SOAP II Investigators. Comparison of dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of shock. N Engl J Med 2010; 362 (09) 779-789
31 Levy B, Clere-Jehl R, Legras A. et al; Collaborators. Epinephrine versus norepinephrine for cardiogenic shock after acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018; 72 (02) 173-182
32 Thiele H, Zeymer U, Neumann FJ. et al; IABP-SHOCK II Trial Investigators. Intraaortic balloon support for myocardial infarction with cardiogenic shock. N Engl J Med 2012; 367 (14) 1287-1296
33 Ouweneel DM, Eriksen E, Sjauw KD. et al. Percutaneous mechanical circulatory support versus intra-aortic balloon pump in cardiogenic shock after acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 69 (03) 278-287
34 Ouweneel DM, Eriksen E, Seyfarth M, Henriques JP. Percutaneous mechanical circulatory support versus intra-aortic balloon pump for treating cardiogenic shock: meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 69 (03) 358-360
35 Flaherty MP, Khan AR, O'Neill WW. Early initiation of Impella in acute myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock improves survival: a meta-analysis. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2017; 10 (17) 1805-1806
36 Udesen NJ, Møller JE, Lindholm MG. et al; DanGer Shock investigators. Rationale and design of DanGer shock: Danish-German cardiogenic shock trial. Am Heart J 2019; 214: 60-68
37 Karami M, den Uil CA, Ouweneel DM. et al. Mechanical circulatory support in cardiogenic shock from acute myocardial infarction: Impella CP/5.0 versus ECMO. Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care 2020; 9 (02) 164-172
38 Becher PM, Schrage B, Sinning CR. et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for cardiopulmonary support. Circulation 2018; 138 (20) 2298-2300
39 Jentzer JC, van Diepen S, Henry TD. Understanding how cardiac arrest complicates the analysis of clinical trials of cardiogenic shock. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2020; 13 (09) e006692
40 Jentzer JC, Henry TD, Barsness GW, Menon V, Baran DA, Van Diepen S. Influence of cardiac arrest and SCAI shock stage on cardiac intensive care unit mortality. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2020; 96 (07) 1350-1359
41 Tehrani BN, Truesdell AG, Sherwood MW. et al. Standardized team-based care for cardiogenic shock. J Am Coll Cardiol 2019; 73 (13) 1659-1669
42 Taleb I, Koliopoulou AG, Tandar A. et al. Shock team approach in refractory cardiogenic shock requiring short-term mechanical circulatory support: a proof of concept. Circulation 2019; 140 (01) 98-100
43 Sleeper LA, Reynolds HR, White HD, Webb JG, Dzavík V, Hochman JS. A severity scoring system for risk assessment of patients with cardiogenic shock: a report from the SHOCK Trial and Registry. Am Heart J 2010; 160 (03) 443-450
44 Karam N, Bataille S, Marijon E. et al; e-MUST Study Investigators. Incidence, mortality, and outcome-predictors of sudden cardiac arrest complicating myocardial infarction prior to hospital admission. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2019; 12 (01) e007081
45 Jentzer JC, Herrmann J, Prasad A, Barsness GW, Bell MR. Utility and challenges of an early invasive strategy in patients resuscitated from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2019; 12 (08) 697-708
46 O'Gara PT, Kushner FG, Ascheim DD. et al. 2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 61 (04) 485-510
47 Lemkes JS, Janssens GN, van der Hoeven NW. et al. Coronary angiography after cardiac arrest without ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med 2019; 380 (15) 1397-1407
48 Rab T, Kern KB, Tamis-Holland JE. et al; Interventional Council, American College of Cardiology. Cardiac arrest: a treatment algorithm for emergent invasive cardiac procedures in the resuscitated comatose patient. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015; 66 (01) 62-73
49 Nielsen N, Wetterslev J, Cronberg T. et al; TTM Trial Investigators. Targeted temperature management at 33°C versus 36°C after cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 2013; 369 (23) 2197-2206
50 Jentzer JC, Clements CM, Murphy JG, Scott Wright R. Recent developments in the management of patients resuscitated from cardiac arrest. J Crit Care 2017; 39: 97-107
51 Callaway CW, Donnino MW, Fink EL. et al. Part 8: post-cardiac arrest care: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation 2015; 132 (18) (Suppl. 02) S465-S482
52 Wallmüller C, Sterz F, Testori C. et al. Emergency cardio-pulmonary bypass in cardiac arrest: seventeen years of experience. Resuscitation 2013; 84 (03) 326-330
53 Belohlavek J, Kucera K, Jarkovsky J. et al. Hyperinvasive approach to out-of hospital cardiac arrest using mechanical chest compression device, prehospital intraarrest cooling, extracorporeal life support and early invasive assessment compared to standard of care. a randomized parallel groups comparative study proposal. “Prague OHCA study”. J Transl Med 2012; 10: 163
54 Toma M, Buller CE, Westerhout CM. et al; APEX-AMI Investigators. Non-culprit coronary artery percutaneous coronary intervention during acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: insights from the APEX-AMI trial. Eur Heart J 2010; 31 (14) 1701-1707
55 Jaski BE, Cohen JD, Trausch J. et al. Outcome of urgent percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in acute myocardial infarction: comparison of single-vessel versus multivessel coronary artery disease. Am Heart J 1992; 124 (06) 1427-1433
56 Patel MR, Calhoon JH, Dehmer GJ. et al. ACC/AATS/AHA/ASE/ASNC/SCAI/SCCT/STS 2016 appropriate use criteria for coronary revascularization in patients with acute coronary syndromes: a report of the American College of Cardiology Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American Heart Association, American Society of Echocardiography, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 69 (05) 570-591
57 Neumann FJ, Sousa-Uva M, Ahlsson A. et al; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2018 ESC/EACTS Guidelines on myocardial revascularization. Eur Heart J 2019; 40 (02) 87-165
58 Wald DS, Morris JK, Wald NJ. et al; PRAMI Investigators. Randomized trial of preventive angioplasty in myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2013; 369 (12) 1115-1123
59 Gershlick AH, Khan JN, Kelly DJ. et al. Randomized trial of complete versus lesion-only revascularization in patients undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention for STEMI and multivessel disease: the CvLPRIT trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015; 65 (10) 963-972
60 Gershlick AH, Banning AS, Parker E. et al. Long-term follow-up of complete versus lesion-only revascularization in STEMI and multivessel disease: the CvLPRIT trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2019; 74 (25) 3083-3094
61 Smits PC, Abdel-Wahab M, Neumann FJ. et al; Compare-Acute Investigators. Fractional flow reserve-guided multivessel angioplasty in myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2017; 376 (13) 1234-1244
62 Mehta SR, Wood DA, Storey RF. et al; COMPLETE Trial Steering Committee and Investigators. Complete revascularization with multivessel PCI for myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2019; 381 (15) 1411-1421
63 Ahmad Y, Howard JP, Arnold A. et al. Complete revascularization by percutaneous coronary intervention for patients with ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction and multivessel coronary artery disease: an updated meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Am Heart Assoc 2020; 9 (12) e015263
64 Vallabhajosyula S, Prasad A, Bell MR. et al. Outcomes of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction involving the left main coronary artery. Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes 2020; 4 (03) 345-346
65 Ibanez B, James S, Agewall S. et al; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2017 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation: the Task Force for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2018; 39 (02) 119-177
66 Pedrazzini GB, Radovanovic D, Vassalli G. et al; AMIS Plus Investigators. Primary percutaneous coronary intervention for unprotected left main disease in patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction the AMIS (Acute Myocardial Infarction in Switzerland) plus registry experience. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2011; 4 (06) 627-633
67 Ahmad Y, Howard JP, Arnold AD. et al. Mortality after drug-eluting stents vs. coronary artery bypass grafting for left main coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur Heart J 2020; 41 (34) 3228-3235
68 Stone GW, Kappetein AP, Sabik JF. et al; EXCEL Trial Investigators. Five-year outcomes after PCI or CABG for left main coronary disease. N Engl J Med 2019; 381 (19) 1820-1830
69 Lee MS, Bokhoor P, Park SJ. et al. Unprotected left main coronary disease and ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: a contemporary review and argument for percutaneous coronary intervention. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2010; 3 (08) 791-795
70 Ellis SG, Tamai H, Nobuyoshi M. et al. Contemporary percutaneous treatment of unprotected left main coronary stenoses: initial results from a multicenter registry analysis 1994-1996. Circulation 1997; 96 (11) 3867-3872
71 Kosuga K, Tamai H, Ueda K. et al. Initial and long-term results of angioplasty in unprotected left main coronary artery. Am J Cardiol 1999; 83 (01) 32-37
72 Vis MM, Beijk MA, Grundeken MJ. et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis on primary percutaneous coronary intervention of an unprotected left main coronary artery culprit lesion in the setting of acute myocardial infarction. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2013; 6 (04) 317-324
73 Gharacholou SM, Ijioma NN, Lennon RJ. et al. Characteristics and long term outcomes of patients with acute coronary syndromes due to culprit left main coronary artery disease treated with percutaneous coronary intervention. Am Heart J 2018; 199: 156-162
74 Perera D, Stables R, Clayton T. et al; BCIS-1 Investigators. Long-term mortality data from the balloon pump-assisted coronary intervention study (BCIS-1): a randomized, controlled trial of elective balloon counterpulsation during high-risk percutaneous coronary intervention. Circulation 2013; 127 (02) 207-212
75 O'Neill WW, Kleiman NS, Moses J. et al. A prospective, randomized clinical trial of hemodynamic support with Impella 2.5 versus intra-aortic balloon pump in patients undergoing high-risk percutaneous coronary intervention: the PROTECT II study. Circulation 2012; 126 (14) 1717-1727
76 Elbadawi A, Elgendy IY, Mahmoud K. et al. Temporal trends and outcomes of mechanical complications in patients with acute myocardial infarction. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2019; 12 (18) 1825-1836
77 Honda S, Asaumi Y, Yamane T. et al. Trends in the clinical and pathological characteristics of cardiac rupture in patients with acute myocardial infarction over 35 years. J Am Heart Assoc 2014; 3 (05) e000984
78 GUSTO investigators. An international randomized trial comparing four thrombolytic strategies for acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1993; 329 (10) 673-682
79 Kinn JW, O'Neill WW, Benzuly KH, Jones DE, Grines CL. Primary angioplasty reduces risk of myocardial rupture compared to thrombolysis for acute myocardial infarction. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn 1997; 42 (02) 151-157
80 Bajaj A, Sethi A, Rathor P, Suppogu N, Sethi A. Acute complications of myocardial infarction in the current era: diagnosis and management. J Investig Med 2015; 63 (07) 844-855
81 Nishimura RA, Otto CM, Bonow RO. et al; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 2014 AHA/ACC guideline for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014; 63 (22) 2438-2488
82 Kettner J, Sramko M, Holek M, Pirk J, Kautzner J. Utility of intra-aortic balloon pump support for ventricular septal rupture and acute mitral regurgitation complicating acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 2013; 112 (11) 1709-1713
83 Kishon Y, Oh JK, Schaff HV, Mullany CJ, Tajik AJ, Gersh BJ. Mitral valve operation in postinfarction rupture of a papillary muscle: immediate results and long-term follow-up of 22 patients. Mayo Clin Proc 1992; 67 (11) 1023-1030
84 Bahlmann E, Frerker C, Kreidel F. et al. MitraClip implantation after acute ischemic papillary muscle rupture in a patient with prolonged cardiogenic shock. Ann Thorac Surg 2015; 99 (02) e41-e42
85 Papadopoulos K, Chrissoheris M, Nikolaou I, Spargias K. Edge-to-edge mitral valve repair for acute mitral valve regurgitation due to papillary muscle rupture: a case report. Eur Heart J Case Rep 2019; 3 (01) ytz001
86 Hutchins GM. Rupture of the interventricular septum complicating myocardial infarction: pathological analysis of 10 patients with clinically diagnosed perforations. Am Heart J 1979; 97 (02) 165-173
87 Crenshaw BS, Granger CB, Birnbaum Y. et al; GUSTO-I (Global Utilization of Streptokinase and TPA for Occluded Coronary Arteries) Trial Investigators. Risk factors, angiographic patterns, and outcomes in patients with ventricular septal defect complicating acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 2000; 101 (01) 27-32
88 Reeder GS. Identification and treatment of complications of myocardial infarction. Mayo Clin Proc 1995; 70 (09) 880-884
89 Smyllie JH, Sutherland GR, Geuskens R, Dawkins K, Conway N, Roelandt JR. Doppler color flow mapping in the diagnosis of ventricular septal rupture and acute mitral regurgitation after myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1990; 15 (06) 1449-1455
90 Ahmed T, Nautiyal A, Kapadia S, Nissen SE. Delayed presentation of STEMI complicated by ventricular septal rupture in the era of COVID-19 pandemic. JACC Case Rep 2020; 2 (10) 1599-1602
91 Papadopoulos N, Moritz A, Dzemali O. et al. Long-term results after surgical repair of postinfarction ventricular septal rupture by infarct exclusion technique. Ann Thorac Surg 2009; 87 (05) 1421-1425
92 Pang PY, Sin YK, Lim CH. et al. Outcome and survival analysis of surgical repair of post-infarction ventricular septal rupture. J Cardiothorac Surg 2013; 8: 44
93 Matteucci M, Fina D, Jiritano F. et al. The use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in the setting of postinfarction mechanical complications: outcome analysis of the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization Registry. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2020; 31 (03) 369-374
94 Jeppsson A, Liden H, Johnsson P, Hartford M, Rådegran K. Surgical repair of post infarction ventricular septal defects: a national experience. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2005; 27 (02) 216-221
95 Arnaoutakis GJ, Zhao Y, George TJ, Sciortino CM, McCarthy PM, Conte JV. Surgical repair of ventricular septal defect after myocardial infarction: outcomes from the Society of Thoracic Surgeons National Database. Ann Thorac Surg 2012; 94 (02) 436-443 , discussion 443–444
96 Calvert PA, Cockburn J, Wynne D. et al. Percutaneous closure of postinfarction ventricular septal defect: in-hospital outcomes and long-term follow-up of UK experience. Circulation 2014; 129 (23) 2395-2402
97 Becker RC, Gore JM, Lambrew C. et al. A composite view of cardiac rupture in the United States National Registry of Myocardial Infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 27 (06) 1321-1326
98 Davis N, Sistino JJ. Review of ventricular rupture: key concepts and diagnostic tools for success. Perfusion 2002; 17 (01) 63-67
99 Oliva PB, Hammill SC, Edwards WD. Cardiac rupture, a clinically predictable complication of acute myocardial infarction: report of 70 cases with clinicopathologic correlations. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 22 (03) 720-726
100 Arsanjani R, Lohrmann G, Allen S, Unzek S, Mookadam F. A multi-modality approach to left ventricular aneurysms: true vs false. Am J Med 2016; 129 (08) e113-e116
101 Vogel-Claussen J, Skrok J, Fishman EK, Lima JA, Shah AS, Bluemke DA. Cardiac CT and MRI guide surgery in impending left ventricular rupture after acute myocardial infarction. J Cardiothorac Surg 2009; 4: 42
102 Engstrøm T, Kelbæk H, Helqvist S. et al; DANAMI-3—PRIMULTI Investigators. Complete revascularisation versus treatment of the culprit lesion only in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction and multivessel disease (DANAMI-3—PRIMULTI): an open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2015; 386 (9994): 665-671