Endokrine Orbitopathie

A. Eckstein; J. Esser; S. Mattheis; U. Berchner-Pfannschmidt

doi:10.1055/s-0042-118040

Klinische Monatsblätter für Augenheilkunde, Inhaltsverzeichnis

Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 2016; 233(12): 1385-1407
DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-118040

Augenheilkunde up2date

Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Endokrine Orbitopathie

Gravesʼ Orbitopathy

Authors

A. Eckstein

¹Zentrum für Augenheilkunde, Abteilung für Erkrankungen des vorderen Augenabschnittes, Universität Duisburg-Essen
J. Esser

¹Zentrum für Augenheilkunde, Abteilung für Erkrankungen des vorderen Augenabschnittes, Universität Duisburg-Essen
S. Mattheis

²Klinik für Hals-, Nasen- und Ohrenheilkunde, Universität Duisburg-Essen
U. Berchner-Pfannschmidt

¹Zentrum für Augenheilkunde, Abteilung für Erkrankungen des vorderen Augenabschnittes, Universität Duisburg-Essen

Abstract

Die endokrine Orbitopathie ist die häufigste extrathyreoidale Manifestation des Morbus Basedow. Die klinische Ausprägung ist variabel. Bei schwereren Manifestationen ist die Lebensqualität der Patienten meist erheblich gemindert. Im Gegensatz zu großen Fortschritten in der Grundlagenforschung, durch die Ansätze für zielgerichtete Target-Therapien sichtbar werden, ist die Translation in die Klinik langsam.

Die Therapie der Schilddrüsenüberfunktion als auch der entzündlichen Orbitopathie basiert im Wesentlichen auf Altbewährtem wie der thyreostatischen Therapie und einer Dämpfung des Immunsystems durch Steroide und Orbitaspitzenbestrahlung. Zulassungsstudien für Immunsuppressiva sind für die endokrine Orbitopathie nicht verfügbar, sodass für die Anwendung immer ein Off-Label-Antrag gestellt werden muss. Meist steht die aufwendige Antragsstellung der dringenden Behandlungssituation im Weg. Dies ist vor allem insofern problematisch, als sich in den wenigen randomisierten Studien gezeigt hat, dass nur eine frühe Therapie bei der endokrinen Orbitopathie effektiv ist.

Noch immer ist keine Therapie verfügbar, um bleibende Defekte durch Muskelfibrose und Fettvermehrung in der Augenhöhle vollständig zu vermeiden. Aus diesem Grund ist die chirurgische Therapie bleibender Defekte wesentlicher Inhalt der Therapie der Patienten mit moderaten und schweren Manifestationen.

Volltext

Referenzen

Literatur
1 Shan SJ, Douglas RS. The pathophysiology of thyroid eye disease. J Neuroophthalmol 2014; 34: 177-185
2 Bahn RS. Current insights into the pathogenesis of Graves ophthalmopathy. Horm Metab Res 2015; 47: 773-778
3 Khoo DH, Ho SC, Seah LL et al. The combination of absent thyroid peroxidase antibodies and high thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin levels in Graves disease identifies a group at markedly increased risk of ophthalmopathy. Thyroid 1999; 9: 1175-1180
4 Eckstein AK, Plicht M, Lax H et al. Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies are independent risk factors for Graves ophthalmopathy and help to predict severity and outcome of the disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 3464-3470
5 Morshed SA, Davies TF. Graves disease mechanisms: the role of stimulating, blocking, and cleavage region TSH receptor antibodies. Horm Metab Res 2015; 47: 727-734
6 Lytton SD, Ponto KA, Kanitz M et al. A novel thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin bioassay is a functional indicator of activity and severity of Graves orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 2123-2131
7 Latif R, Morshed SA, Zaidi M et al. The thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor: impact of thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibodies on multimerization, cleavage, and signaling. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2009; 38: 319-341
8 Feldon SE, Park DJ, OʼLoughlin CW et al. Autologous T-lymphocytes stimulate proliferation of orbital fibroblasts derived from patients with Graves ophthalmopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2005; 46: 3913-3921
9 Tsui S, Naik V, Hoa N et al. Evidence for an association between thyroid-stimulating hormone and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptors: a tale of two antigens implicated in Graves disease. J Immunol 2008; 181: 4397-4405
10 Krieger CC, Neumann S, Place RF et al. Bidirectional TSH and IGF-1 receptor cross talk mediates stimulation of hyaluronan secretion by Graves disease immunoglobins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100: 1071-1077
11 Kuriyan AE, Woeller CF, OʼLoughlin CW et al. Orbital fibroblasts from thyroid eye disease patients differ in proliferative and adipogenic responses depending on disease subtype. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2013; 54: 7370-7377
12 Draman MS, Grennan-Jones F, Zhang L et al. Effects of prostaglandin f on adipocyte biology relevant to Graves orbitopathy. Thyroid 2013; 12: 1600-1608
13 Anderson DJ, Axel R. Molecular probes for the development and plasticity of neural crest derivatives. Cell 1985; 42: 649-662
14 Brandau S et al. Orbital fibroblasts from Gravesʼorbitopathy patients share functional and immunophenotypic properties with mesenchymal stem/stromal cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2015; 56: 6549-6557
15 Zhang L, Baker G, Janus D et al. Biological effects of thyrotropin receptor activation on human orbital preadipocytes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47: 5197-5203
16 Kumar S, Nadeem S, Stan MN et al. A stimulatory TSH receptor antibody enhances adipogenesis via phosphoinositide 3-kinase activation in orbital preadipocytes from patients with Graves ophthalmopathy. J Mol Endocrinol 2011; 46: 155-163
17 Görtz GE, Horstmann M, Aniol B et al. Hypoxia-dependent HIF-1 activation impacts on tissue remodeling in Graves ophthalmopathy – implications for smoking. JCEM 2016; [im Druck]
18 Zhang L, Grennan-Jones F. Adipose tissue depot-specific differences in the regulation of hyaluronan production of relevance to Gravesʼ orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 653-662
19 Moshkelgosha S, So PW, Deasy N et al. Cutting edge: retrobulbar inflammation, adipogenesis, and acute orbital congestion in a preclinical female mouse model of Graves orbitopathy induced by thyrotropin receptor plasmid – in vivo electroporation. Endocrinology 2013; 154: 3008-3015
20 Berchner-Pfannschmidt U et al. Comparative assessment of female mouse model of Gravesʼ orbitopathy under different environments, accompanied by proinflammatory cytokine and T-cell responses to thyrotropin hormone receptor antigen. Endocrinology 2016; 157: 1673-1682
21 Neumann S, Place RF, Krieger CC et al. Future prospects for the treatment of Graves hyperthyroidism and eye disease. Horm Metab Res 2015; 47: 789-796
22 Furmaniak J, Sanders J, Nunez Miguel R et al. Mechanisms of action of TSHR autoantibodies. Horm Metab Res 2015; 47: 735-752
23 Furmaniak J, Sanders J, Rees Smith B. Blocking type TSH receptor antibodies. Auto Immun Highlights 2013; 4: 11-26
24 Bartley GB, Fatourechi V, Kadrmas EF et al. Chronology of Graves ophthalmopathy in an incidence cohort. Am J Ophthalmol 1996; 121: 426-434
25 Wiersinga WM. Quality of life in Graves ophthalmopathy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 26: 359-370
26 McKeag D, Lane C, Lazarus JH et al. Clinical features of dysthyroid optic neuropathy: a European Group on Graves Orbitopathy (EUGOGO) survey. Br J Ophthalmol 2007; 91: 455-458
27 Regensburg NI, Wiersinga WM, Berendschot TT et al. Do subtypes of Graves orbitopathy exist?. Ophthalmology 2011; 118: 191-196
28 Perros P, Crombie AL, Kendall-Taylor P. Natural history of thyroid associated ophthalmopathy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 1995; 42: 45-50
29 Mourits MP, Koornneef L, Wiersinga WM et al. Clinical criteria for the assessment of disease activity in Graves ophthalmopathy: a novel approach. Br J Ophthalmol 1989; 73: 639-644
30 Wiersinga WM, Prummel MF, Mourits MP et al. Classification of the eye changes of Graves disease. Thyroid 1991; 1: 357-360
31 Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Boboridis K et al. The 2016 European Thyroid Association/European Group on Graves Orbitopathy guidelines for the management of Graves orbitopathy. Eur Thyroid J 2016; 5: 9-26
32 Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Dickinson A et al. Consensus statement of the European Group on Graves Orbitopathy (EUGOGO) on management of GO. Eur J Endocrinol 2008; 158: 273-285
33 Dolman PJ, Rootman J. VISA Classification for Graves orbitopathy. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2006; 22: 319-324
34 Bartalena L et al. More on smoking habits and Gravesʼ ophthalmopathy. J Endocrinol Invest 1989; 12: 733-737
35 Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM. Smoking and risk of Gravesʼ disease. Jama 1993; 269: 479-482
36 Traisk F et al. Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy after treatment for Gravesʼ hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs or iodine-131. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 3700-3707
37 Bartalena L et al. Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Gravesʼ ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 73-78
38 Bartalena L et al. Cigarette smoking and treatment outcomes in Graves ophthalmopathy. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129: 632-635
39 Eckstein A et al. Impact of smoking on the response to treatment of thyroid associated ophthalmopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 2003; 87: 773-776
40 Pfeilschifter J, Ziegler R. Smoking and endocrine ophthalmopathy: impact of smoking severity and current vs lifetime cigarette consumption. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 1996; 45: 477-481
41 Bartalena L et al. The 2016 European Thyroid Association/European Group on Gravesʼ Orbitopathy Guidelines for the Management of Gravesʼ Orbitopathy. Eur Thyroid J 2016; 5: 9-26
42 Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Torring O et al. Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves hyperthyroidism. The Thyroid Study Group. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 1733-1738
43 Meyer Zu Horste M, Pateronis K, Walz MK et al. The effect of early thyroidectomy on the course of active Graves orbitopathy (GO): a retrospective case study. Horm Metab Res 2016; 48: 433-439
44 Traisk F, Tallstedt L, Abraham-Nordling M et al. Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs or iodine-131. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 3700-3707
45 Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F et al. Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 73-78
46 Vannucchi G, Campi I, Covelli D et al. Graves orbitopathy activation after radioactive iodine therapy with and without steroid prophylaxis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 3381-3386
47 Lai A, Sassi L, Compri E et al. Lower dose prednisone prevents radioiodine-associated exacerbation of initially mild or absent Graves orbitopathy: a retrospective cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 1333-1337
48 Perros P, Kendall-Taylor P, Neoh C et al. A prospective study of the effects of radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism in patients with minimally active Graves ophthalmopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 5321-5323
49 Menconi F, Marino M, Pinchera A et al. Effects of total thyroid ablation vs near-total thyroidectomy alone on mild to moderate Graves orbitopathy treated with intravenous glucocorticoids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 1653-1658
50 Menconi F, Leo M, Vitti P et al. Total thyroid ablation in Graves orbitopathy. J Endocrinol Invest 2015; 38: 809-815
51 Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE et al. Selenium and the course of mild Graves orbitopathy. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 1920-1931
52 Zang S, Ponto KA, Kahaly GJ. Clinical review: Intravenous glucocorticoids for Graves orbitopathy: efficacy and morbidity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96: 320-332
53 Kahaly GJ, Pitz S, Hommel G et al. Randomized, single blind trial of intravenous versus oral steroid monotherapy in Graves orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 5234-5240
54 Bartalena L, Krassas GE, Wiersinga W et al. Efficacy and safety of three different cumulative doses of intravenous methylprednisolone for moderate to severe and active Graves orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 4454-4463
55 Le Moli R, Baldeschi L, Saeed P et al. Determinants of liver damage associated with intravenous methylprednisolone pulse therapy in Graves ophthalmopathy. Thyroid 2007; 17: 357-362
56 Mourits MP, van Kempen-Harteveld ML, Garcia MB et al. Radiotherapy for Graves orbitopathy: randomised placebo-controlled study. Lancet 2000; 355: 1505-1509
57 Prummel MF, Terwee CB, Gerding MN et al. A randomized controlled trial of orbital radiotherapy versus sham irradiation in patients with mild Graves ophthalmopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 15-20
58 Johnson KT, Wittig A, Loesch C et al. A retrospective study on the efficacy of total absorbed orbital doses of 12, 16 and 20 Gy combined with systemic steroid treatment in patients with Graves orbitopathy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2010; 248: 103-109
59 Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F et al. Orbital radiotherapy combined with high dose systemic glucocorticoids for Graves ophthalmopathy is more effective than radiotherapy alone: results of a prospective randomized study. J Endocrinol Invest 1991; 14: 853-860
60 Gorman CA, Garrity JA, Fatourechi V et al. A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of orbital radiotherapy for Graves ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmology 2001; 108: 1523-1534
61 Gerling J, Kommerell G, Henne K et al. Retrobulbar irradiation for thyroid-associated orbitopathy: double-blind comparison between 2.4 and 16 Gy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2003; 55: 182-189
62 Kahaly G, Schrezenmeir J, Krause U et al. Ciclosporin and prednisone v. prednisone in treatment of Graves ophthalmopathy: a controlled, randomized and prospective study. Eur J Clin Invest 1986; 16: 415-422
63 Ghadiri N. The management of thyroid eye disease by immunomodulation – The Cambridge regime. International Thyroid Eye Disease Society Symposium 2016. London: 2016
64 Salvi M, Vannucchi G, Curro N et al. Efficacy of B-cell targeted therapy with rituximab in patients with active moderate to severe Graves orbitopathy: a randomized controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100: 422-431
65 Stan MN, Garrity JA, Carranza Leon BG et al. Randomized controlled trial of rituximab in patients with Graves orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100: 432-441
66 Ueki I, Abiru N, Kobayashi M et al. B cell-targeted therapy with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody in a mouse model of Graves hyperthyroidism. Clin Exp Immunol 2011; 163: 309-317
67 Mitchell AL, Gan EH, Morris M et al. The effect of B cell depletion therapy on anti-TSH receptor antibodies and clinical outcome in glucocorticoid-refractory Graves orbitopathy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 2013; 79: 437-442
68 Heyes C, Nolan R, Leahy M et al. Treatment-resistant elephantiasic thyroid dermopathy responding to rituximab and plasmapheresis. Australas J Dermatol 2012; 53: e1-e4
69 Riedl M, Kuhn A, Kramer I et al. Prospective, systematically recorded mycophenolate safety data in Graves orbitopathy. J Endocrinol Invest 2016; 39: 687-694
70 Wakelkamp I, Baldeschi L, Saeed P et al. Surgical or medical decompression as a first-line treatment of optic neuropathy in Graves ophthalmopathy? A randomized controlled trial. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 2005; 63: 323-328
71 Curro N, Covelli D, Vannucchi G et al. Therapeutic outcomes of high-dose intravenous steroids in the treatment of dysthyroid optic neuropathy. Thyroid 2014; 24: 897-905
72 Messmer EM. The pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of dry eye disease. Dtsch Ärztebl Int 2015; 112: 71-81 quiz 82
73 Wabbels B, Forl M. [Botulinum toxin treatment for crocodile tears, spastic entropion and for dysthyroid upper eyelid retraction]. Ophthalmologe 2007; 104: 771-776
74 Salour H, Bagheri B, Aletaha M et al. Transcutaneous dysport injection for treatment of upper eyelid retraction associated with thyroid eye disease. Orbit 2010; 29: 114-118
75 Shih MJ, Liao SL, Lu HY. A single transcutaneous injection with Botox for dysthyroid lid retraction. Eye 2004; 18: 466-469
76 Uddin JM, Davies PD. Treatment of upper eyelid retraction associated with thyroid eye disease with subconjunctival botulinum toxin injection. Ophthalmology 2002; 109: 1183-1187
77 Ebner R. Botulinum toxin type A in upper lid retraction of Graves ophthalmopathy. J Clin Neuroophthalmol 1993; 13: 258-261
78 Chee E, Chee SP. Subconjunctival injection of triamcinolone in the treatment of lid retraction of patients with thyroid eye disease: a case series. Eye (London) 2008; 22: 311-315
79 Lee SJ, Rim TH, Jang SY et al. Treatment of upper eyelid retraction related to thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy using subconjunctival triamcinolone injections. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2013; 251: 261-270
80 Eckstein A, Esser J. Surgical Management of extraocular Muscle Dysfunction in Patients with GO. In: Bahn RS, ed. Graves’ Disease. New York: Springer; 2015
81 Abramoff MD, Kalmann R, de Graaf ME et al. Rectus extraocular muscle paths and decompression surgery for Graves orbitopathy: mechanism of motility disturbances. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2002; 43: 300-307
82 Rocchi R, Lenzi R, Marino M et al. Rehabilitative orbital decompression for Graves orbitopathy: risk factors influencing the new onset of diplopia in primary gaze, outcome, and patients satisfaction. Thyroid 2012; 22: 1170-1175
83 Ben Simon GJ, Syed HM, Lee S et al. Strabismus after deep lateral wall orbital decompression in thyroid-related orbitopathy patients using automated hess screen. Ophthalmology 2006; 113: 1050-1055
84 Baldeschi L, MacAndie K, Hintschich C et al. The removal of the deep lateral wall in orbital decompression: its contribution to exophthalmos reduction and influence on consecutive diplopia. Am J Ophthalmol 2005; 140: 642-647
85 Fayers T, Barker LE, Verity DH et al. Oscillopsia after lateral wall orbital decompression. Ophthalmology 2013; 120: 1920-1923
86 Rocchi R, Lenzi R, Marino M et al. Rehabilitative orbital decompression for Graves orbitopathy: risk factors influencing the new onset of diplopia in primary gaze, outcome and patients satisfaction. A large retrospective study. Thyroid 2012; 22: 1170-1175
87 Sellari-Franceschini S, Berrettini S, Santoro A et al. Orbital decompression in Graves ophthalmopathy by medial and lateral wall removal. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2005; 133: 185-189
88 Kim JW, Goldberg RA, Shorr N. The inferomedial orbital strut: an anatomic and radiographic study. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2002; 18: 355-364
89 Kaminsky J, Ridder GJ, Eckstein A et al. Operative Therapie bei endokriner Orbitopathie. Ophthalmologe 2011; 108: 432-439
90 Kushner BJ. Torsional diplopia after transantral orbital decompression and extraocular muscle surgery associated with Graves orbitopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1992; 114: 239-240
91 McCann JD, Goldberg RA, Anderson RL et al. Medial wall decompression for optic neuropathy but lateral wall decompression with fat removal for non vision-threatening indications. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 141: 916-917
92 Yao WC, Sedaghat AR, Yadav P et al. Orbital decompression in the endoscopic age: The modified inferomedial orbital strut. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2016; 154: 963-969
93 Reich SS, Null RC, Timoney PJ et al. Trends in orbital decompression techniques of surveyed ASOPRS Members. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2015;
94 Mourits MP, Bijl H, Altea MA et al. Outcome of orbital decompression for disfiguring proptosis in patients with Graves orbitopathy using various surgical procedures. Br J Ophthalmol 2009; 93: 1518-1523
95 Olivari N. Transpalpebral decompression of endocrine ophthalmopathy (Graves disease) by removal of intraorbital fat: experience with 147 operations over 5 years. Plast Reconstr Surg 1991; 87: 627-641 discussion 642–643
96 Jordan DR. Re: “Orbital Fat Decompression for Thyroid Eye Disease: Retrospective Case Review and Criteria for Optimal Case Selection”. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2016; 32: 72
97 Kahaly GJ, Petrak F, Hardt J et al. Psychosocial morbidity of Graves orbitopathy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 2005; 63: 395-402
98 Eckstein A, Schulz S, Esser J. [Is combined surgical correction of horizontal and vertical squint of value in Graves ophthalmopathy?]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 2004; 221: 769-775
99 Jellema HM, Saeed P, Everhard-Halm Y et al. Bilateral inferior rectus muscle recession in patients with Graves orbitopathy: is it effective?. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2012; 28: 268-272
100 Schittkowski M, Fichter N, Guthoff R. [Strabismus surgery in Graveʼs disease – dose-effect relationships and functional results]. Augenmuskeloperationen bei endokriner Orbitopathie: Dosis-Wirkungs-Beziehung und funktionelle Ergebnisse. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 2004; 221: 941-947
101 Eckstein A, Raczynski S, Dekowski D et al. [Contralateral recession of the inferior oblique muscle in Graves disease patients with mild M. rectus inferior fibrosis ] Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 2015; 232: 1178-1183
102 Mocan MC, Ament C, Azar NF. The characteristics and surgical outcomes of medial rectus recessions in Graves ophthalmopathy. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 2007; 44: 93-100
103 Schlüter S, Dekowski D, Stechmann D et al. Primäre und sekundäre Rücklagerung des M. rectus superior bei Endokriner Orbitopathie. Z Prakt Augenheilkd 2015; 36: 37-41
104 Esser J. Ergebnisse der Einmuskelchirurgie bei Endokriner Orbitopathie. Z Prakt Augenheilkd 1993; 14: 280-292
105 Eckstein A, Weiermüller C, Holdt M et al. Schielformen und Augenmuskeloperationen nach Orbitadekompression. Z Prakt Augenheilkd 2011; 32: 335-344
106 Eckstein A et al. Schielformen und Augenmuskeloperationen nach Orbitadekompression. Z prakt Augenheilk 2011; 32: 335-344
107 Schittkowski M, Fichter N, Guthoff R. [Strabismus surgery in Graveʼs disease—dose-effect relationships and functional results]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 2004; 221: 941-947
108 Schlüter S et al. Primäre und sekundäre Rücklagerung des M. rectus superior bei Endokriner Orbitopathie. Z prakt Augenheilk 2015; 36
109 Eckstein A et al. Contralateral recession of the inferior oblique muscle in Gravesʼ disease patients with mild M. rectus inferior fibrosis. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 2015; 232: 1178-1183
110 Esser J. Ergebnisse der Einmuskelchirurgie bei Endokriner Orbitopathie. Z prakt Augenheilk 1993; 14: 280-292
111 Esser J, Eckstein A. Ocular muscle and eyelid surgery in thyroid-associated orbitopathy. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 1999; 107 (Suppl. 05) S214-S221
112 Esser J, Schittkowski M, Eckstein A. [Gravesʼ orbitopaty: inferior rectus tendon elongation for large vertical squint angles that cannot be corrected by simple muscle recession]. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 2011; 228: 880-886
113 Esser J, Eckstein A. Ocular muscle and eyelid surgery in thyroid-associated orbitopathy. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 1999; 107 (Suppl. 05) S214-S221
114 Esser J, Schittkowski M, Eckstein A. Endokrine Orbitopathie: M.-rectus-inferior-Sehnenverlängerung bei großen vertikalen Schielwinkeln, die nicht durch eine einfache Muskelrücklagerung korrigiert werden können. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 2011; 228: 880-886
115 Eckstein A, Schittkowski M, Esser J. Surgical treatment of Graves ophthalmopathy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 26: 339-358
116 Eckstein A, Esser J. Durch eine kleine temporale Tarsorrhaphie lässt sich der Effekt der Unterlidverlängerung mit Implantat bei Patienten einer Endokrinen Orbitopathie signifikant steigern. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 2011; 228: 887-891
117 Baldeschi L. Correction of lid retraction and exophthalmos. Dev Ophthalmol 2008; 41: 103-126
118 Hintschich C, Haritoglou C. Full thickness eyelid transsection (blepharotomy) for upper eyelid lengthening in lid retraction associated with Graves disease. Br J Ophthalmol 2005; 89: 413-416
119 Mourits MP, Sasim IV. A single technique to correct various degrees of upper lid retraction in patients with Graves orbitopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 1999; 83: 81-84
120 Olver JM, Rose GE, Khaw PT et al. Correction of lower eyelid retraction in thyroid eye disease: a randomised controlled trial of retractor tenotomy with adjuvant antimetabolite versus scleral graft. Br J Ophthalmol 1998; 82: 174-180
121 Mourits MP, Koornneef L. Lid lengthening by sclera interposition for eyelid retraction in Graves ophthalmopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 1991; 75: 344-347
122 Harvey JT, Corin S, Nixon D et al. Modified levator aponeurosis recession for upper eyelid retraction in Graves disease. Ophthalmic Surg 1991; 22: 313-317
123 Schittkowski MP, Fichter N, Guthoff RF. Das freie autologe Tarsustransplantat als Spacer zur Behandlung der Unterlidretraktion bei Endokriner Orbitopathie. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 2008; 225: 708-712
124 Feldman KA, Putterman AM, Farber MD. Surgical treatment of thyroid-related lower eyelid retraction: a modified approach. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 1992; 8: 278-286
125 Neoh C, Eckstein A. Eyelid Surgery. In: Wiersinga WM, Kahaly GJ, eds. Graves’ Orbitopathy: A multidiscplinary Approach Questions and Answers. Basel: Karger; 2010: 200-210
126 Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Boboridis K et al. The 2016 European Thyroid Association/European Group on Gravesʼ Orbitopathy Guidelines for the Management of Gravesʼ Orbitopathy. Eur Thyroid J 2016; 5: 9-26

Zusatzmaterial

Literaturverzeichnis (PDF)