Is there an Association between ACE and CKMM Polymorphisms and Cycling Performance Status during 3-Week Races?

Abstract

In this paper, we examine the association between polymorphisms of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and muscle-specific creatine kinase (CKMM) genes, and the actual performance status observed in professional cyclists capable of completing a classic tour stage race such as the Giro d'Italia, Tour de France, or Vuelta a España. To accomplish this, we compared the frequencies of the ACE and CKMM genotypes/alleles in 50 top-level Spanish professional cyclists that have completed at least one of these events to 119 sedentary controls, and 27 elite (Olympic-class) Spanish runners. The genetic polymorphism at the CK-MM locus was detected with the NcoI restriction endonuclease. The results of our study showed that the proportion of the DD genotype was higher in cyclists (50.0 %) than in the other two groups (p < 0.05), the proportion of the ID genotype was higher in controls (46.2 %) than in the other two groups (p < 0.05), and the proportion of the II genotype was higher in runners (40.7 %) than in the other two groups (p < 0.05). The proportion of the D allele was higher in both cyclists (65.0 %) and controls (57.6 %) than in runners (46.3 %) (p < 0.001), whereas the proportion of the I allele was higher in runners than in the other two groups (p < 0.001). No statistical differences were found for CKK-MM-NcoI. We conclude that in top-level professional cyclists capable of completing a classic 3-wk tour race, the frequency distribution of the D allele and the DD genotype seems to be higher than in other endurance athletes such as elite runners (in whom the I allele is especially frequent).

Genotype - allele - sports - endurance

References

• 1 Alvarez R, Terrados N, Ortolano R, Iglesias-Cubero G, Reguero J R, Batalla A, Cortina A, Fernández-García B, Rodríguez C, Braga S, Alvarez V, Coto E. Genetic variation in the renin-angiotensin system and athletic performance.  Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000;  82 117-120
• 2 Bassett D R, Howley E T. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;  32 70-84
• 3 Coetzer P, Noakes T D, Sanders B, Lambert M I, Bosch A N, Wiggins T, Dennis S C. Superior resistance of elite black South African distance runners.  J Appl Physiol. 1993;  75 1822-1827
• 4 Coyle E F, Sidossis L F, Horowitz J F, Beltz J D. Cycling efficiency is related to the percentage of Type I muscle fibers.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;  24 782-788
• 5 Echegaray M, Rivera M A. Role of creatine kinase isoenzymes on muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance. Genetic and molecular evidence.  Sports Med. 2001;  31 919-934
• 6 Gayagay G, Yu B, Hambly B, Boston T, Hahn A, Celermayer D S, Trent R J. Elite endurance athletes and the ACE I allele -the role of genes in athletic performance.  Hum Genet. 1998;  103 48-50
• 7 Gennarelli M, Novelli G, Cobo A, Baiget M, Dallapiccola B. 3′creatine kinase (M-type) polymorphisms linked to myotonic dystrophy in Italian and Spanish populations.  Hum Genet. 1991;  87 654-656
• 8 Giner V, Corella D, Chaves F J, Pascual J M, Portolés O, Marín P, Lozano J V, Armengold M E, Redón J. Renin-angiotensin system genetic polymorphisms and essential hypertension in the Spanish population.  Med Clin (Barc). 2001;  117 525-529
• 9 Hunley T E, Julian B A, Phillips 3rd J A. Angiotensin converting enzyme gene polymorphism: potential silencer motif and impact on progression in IgA nephropathy.  Kidney Int. 1996;  49 571-577
• 10 Jones A, Montgomery H E, Woods D R. Human performance: a role for the ACE genotype?.  Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2002;  30 184-190
• 11 Jones A, Woods D R. Skeletal muscle RAS and exercise performance.  Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2003;  35 855-866
• 12 Larsen H B. Kenyan dominance in distance running.  Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol. 2003;  136 161-170
• 13 Lindpaintner K, Pfeffer M A, Kreutz R, Stampfer M J, Grodstein F, LaMotte F, Buring J, Hennekens C H. A prospective evaluation of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme gene polymorphism and the risk of ischemic heart disease.  N Engl J Med. 1995;  332 706-711
• 14 Lucia A, Díaz B, Hoyos J, Fernández C, Villa G, Bandres F, Chicharro J L. Hormone levels of world class cyclists during the Tour of Spain stage race.  Br J Sports Med. 2001;  35 424-430
• 15 Lucia A, Earnest C, Arribas C. The Tour de France: a physiological review.  Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2003;  13 275-283
• 16 Lucia A, Hoyos J, Carvajal A, Chicharro J L. Heart rate response to professional road cycling: the Tour de France.  Int J Sports Med. 1999;  20 167-172
• 17 Lucia A, Hoyos J, Chicharro J L. Physiology of professional road cycling.  Sports Med. 2001;  31 325-337
• 18 Lucia A, Hoyos J, Pérez M, Santalla A, Chicharro J L. Inverse relationship between V·O₂max and economy/efficiency in world-class cyclists.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;  34 2079-2084
• 19 Lucia A, Hoyos J, Santalla A, Earnest C, Chicharro J L. Tour de France vs. Vuelta a España: Which is harder?.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;  35 872-878
• 20 Mondorf U F, Russ A, Wiesemann A, Herrero M, Oremek G, Lenz T. Contribution of angiotensin I converting enzyme gene polymorphism and angiotensin gene polymorphism to blood pressure regulation in essential hypertension.  Am J Hypertens. 1998;  11 174-183
• 21 Myerson S, Hemingway H, Budget R, Martin J, Humphries S, Montgomery H. Human angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene and endurance performance.  J Appl Physiol. 1999;  87 1313-1316
• 22 Nazarov I B, Woods D R, Montgomery H E, Shneider O V, Kazakov V I, Tomilin N V, Rogozkin V A. The angiotensin converting enzyme I/D polymorphism in Russian athletes.  Eur J Hum Genet. 2001;  9 797-801
• 23 Noakes T D. Implications of exercise testing for prediction of athletic performance: A contemporary perspective.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1988;  20 319-330
• 24 Rankinen T, Wolfarth B, Simoneau J-A, Maier L-D, Rauramaa R, Rivera M A, Boulay M R, Chagnon Y C, Pérusse L, Keul J, Bouchard C. No association between the angiotensin-converting enzyme ID polymorphism and elite endurance athlete status.  J Appl Physiol. 2000;  88 1571-1575
• 25 Rigat B, Hubert C, Alhenc-Gelas F, Cambien F, Corvol P, Soubrier F. An insertion/deletion polymorphism in the angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene accounting for half the variance of serum enzyme levels.  J Clin Invest. 1990;  86 1343-1346
• 26 Rivera M A, Dionne F T, Simoneau J A, Pérusse L, Chagnon M, Chagnon Y, Gagnon J, Leon A S, Rao D C, Skinner J S, Wilmore J H, Bouchard C. Muscle-specific creatine kinase gene polymorphism and VO_2max in the HERITAGE Family Study.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;  29 1311-1317
• 27 Rivera M A, Dionne F T, Wolfarth B, Chagnon M, Simoneau J-A, Pérusse L, Boulay M R, Gagnon J, Song T MK, Keul J, Bouchard C. Muscle-specific creatine kinase gene polymorphisms in elite endurance athletes and sedentary controls.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;  29 1444-1447
• 28 Rivera M A, Pérusse L, Simoneau J A, Gagnon J, Dionne F T, Leon A S, Skinner J S, Wilmore J H, Province M, Rao D C, Bouchard C. Linkage between muscle-specific CK gene markers and VO_2max in the HERITAGE Family Study.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;  31 698-701
• 29 Scanavini D, Bernardi F, Castoldi E, Conconi F, Mazzoni G. Increased frequency of the homozygous II ACE genotype in Italian Olympic endurance athletes.  Eur J Hum Genet. 2002;  10 576-577
• 30 Taylor R R, Mamotte C D, Fallon K, van Bockxmeer F M. Elite athletes and the gene for angiotensin-converting enzyme.  J Appl Physiol. 1999;  87 1035-1037
• 31 Woods D, Hickman M, Jamshidi Y, Brull D, Vassiliou V, Jones A, Humphries S, Montgomery H. Elite swimmers and the D allele of the ACE I/D polymorphism.  Hum Genet. 2001;  108 230-232
• 32 Yamashita K, Yoshioka T. Profiles of creatine kinase isoenzyme compositions in single muscle fibers of different types.  J Muscle Res Cell Motil. 1991;  12 37-44