Download PDF
Int J Sports Med 2007; 28(6): 449-455
DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-924517
Physiology & Biochemistry

© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

A Cumulative Effect of Physical Training on Bone Strength in Males

B. Falk1 , 4 , Y. Galili1 , L. Zigel1 , N. Constantini2 , A. Eliakim3
  • 1Ribstein Center for Sport Medicine Sciences and Research, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel
  • 2Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Hadassa-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
  • 3Department of Pediatrics, Meir General Hospital, Sapir Medical Center, Kfar Sava, Israel
  • 4Present address: Department of Physical Education and Kinesiology, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada
Further Information

Publication History

Accepted after revision: July 15, 2006

Publication Date:
16 November 2006 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Weight-bearing, high-impact exercise, as opposed to nonimpact exercise, has been demonstrated to increase bone mineral density. This was traditionally demonstrated with dual energy X‐ray absorptiometry. Our objective was to assess the differences in bone properties, using quantitative ultrasound (QUS, Sunlight Omnisense™, Sunlight Medical, Ltd., Tel Aviv, Israel), in male athletes involved in a weight-bearing, impact sport (soccer, SC) or a nonimpact sport (swimming and water polo, AQ), compared with nonathletic control (C) males. A total of 266 boys and men, aged 8 - 23 years, were divided into children (11.1 ± 1.0 years; 34 SC, 34 AQ, 25 C), adolescents (14.7 ± 1.2 years; 32 SC, 31 AQ, 31 C), and young adults (19.8 ± 1.1 years; 31 SC, 24 AQ, 24 C) · Training experience varied between 1.5 years in the children to 15 years in the adults. Bone speed of sound (SOS) was measured bilaterally at the distal radius and the mid-tibia. Body fat was significantly lower in athletes compared with C. AQ were generally heavier and had a higher fat-free mass compared with SC and C, with no significant differences in height between groups. Radial SOS increased with age, but no differences were observed between activity groups or between the dominant (D) and nondominant (ND) arm. Tibial SOS also increased with age. In the children and adolescents, no differences were observed between activity groups. However, among adults, both SC and AQ had higher tibial SOS compared with C. These differences were mainly explained by differences in fat-free mass. Among young adults but not among children and adolescent males, both soccer and aquatic sports appear to be associated with higher bone SOS in the lower, but not the upper, extremities. Further studies are needed to assess possible sport-specific mechanisms which affect bone properties and to determine the minimal cumulative effect which is needed to influence bone properties.

Key words

Adolescence - boys - soccer - sport - swimming

References

  • 1 Andreoli A, Monteleone M, Van Loan M, Promenzio L, Tarantino U, De Lorenzo A. Effects of different sports on bone density and muscle mass in highly trained athletes.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;  33 507-511
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Bangsbo J. The physiology of soccer-with special reference to intense intermittent exercise.  Acta Physiol Scand Suppl. 1994;  619 1-155
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Barkmann R, Kantorovich E, Singal C, Hans D, Genant H K, Heller M, Gluer C C. A new method for quantitative ultrasound measurements at multiple skeletal sites: first results of precision and fracture discrimination.  J Clin Densitom. 2000;  3 1-7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Block J E, Friedlander A L, Brooks G A, Steiger P, Stubbs H A, Genant H K. Determinants of bone density among athletes engaged in weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing activity.  J Appl Physiol. 1989;  67 1100-1105
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Calbet J A, Dorado C, Diaz-Herrera P, Rodriguez-Rodriguez L P. High femoral bone mineral content and density in male football (soccer) players.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;  33 1682-1687
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Daly R M, Rich P A, Klein R. Influence of high impact loading on ultrasound bone measurements in children: a cross-sectional report.  Calcif Tissue Int. 1997;  60 401-404
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Duke P M, Litt I F, Gross R T. Adolescents' self-assessment of sexual maturation.  Pediatrics. 1980;  66 918-920
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Duncan C S, Blimkie C J, Cowell C T, Burke S T, Briody J N, Howman-Giles R. Bone mineral density in adolescent female athletes: relationship to exercise type and muscle strength.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;  34 286-294
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Duppe H, Gardsell P, Johnell O, Ornstein E. Bone mineral density in female junior, senior and former football players.  Osteoporos Int. 1996;  6 437-441
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Durnin J V, Womersley J. Body fat assessed from total body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness: measurements on 481 men and women aged from 16 to 72 years.  Br J Nutr. 1974;  32 77-97
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Falk B, Bronshtein Z, Zigel L, Constantini N, Eliakim A. Higher tibial quantitative ultrasound in young female swimmers.  Br J Sports Med. 2004;  38 461-465
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Falk B, Bronshtein Z, Zigel L, Constantini N W, Eliakim A. Quantitative ultrasound of the tibia and radius in prepubertal and early-pubertal female athletes.  Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;  157 139-143
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Falk B, Sadres E, Constantini N, Eliakim A, Zigel L, Foldes A J. Quantitative ultrasound (QUS) of the tibia: a sensitive tool for the detection of bone changes in growing boys.  J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2000;  13 1129-1135
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Foldes A J, Rimon A, Keinan D D, Popovtzer M M. Quantitative ultrasound of the tibia: a novel approach for assessment of bone status.  Bone. 1995;  17 363-367
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Gluer C C, Wu C Y, Jergas M, Goldstein S A, Genant H K. Three quantitative ultrasound parameters reflect bone structure.  Calcif Tissue Int. 1994;  55 46-52
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Gonnelli S, Cepollaro C, Gennari L, Montagnani A, Caffarelli C, Merlotti D, Rossi S, Cadirni A, Nuti R. Quantitative ultrasound and dual-energy X‐ray absorptiometry in the prediction of fragility fracture in men.  Osteoporos Int. 2005;  16 963-968
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Hart K J, Shaw J M, Vajda E, Hegsted M, Miller S C. Swim-trained rats have greater bone mass, density, strength, and dynamics.  J Appl Physiol. 2001;  91 1663-1668
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Hoshi A, Watanabe H, Chiba M, Inaba Y. Bone density and mechanical properties in femoral bone of swim loaded aged mice.  Biomed Environ Sci. 1998;  11 243-250
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Jergas M, Uffmann M, Wittenberg R, Muller P, Koster O. Ultrasonic velocity measurements at weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing sites of the peripheral skeleton. The effect of physical activity in soccer players.  Rofo. 1992;  157 420-424
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Karlsson M K, Magnusson H, Karlsson C, Seeman E. The duration of exercise as a regulator of bone mass.  Bone. 2001;  28 128-132
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Lima F, De Falco V, Baima J, Carazzato J G, Pereira R M. Effect of impact load and active load on bone metabolism and body composition of adolescent athletes.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;  33 1318-1323
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Litmanovitz I, Dolfin T, Friedland O, Arnon S, Regev R, Shainkin-Kestenbaum R, Lis M, Eliakim A. Early physical activity intervention prevents decrease of bone strength in very low birth weight infants.  Pediatrics. 2003;  112 15-19
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Liu L, Maruno R, Mashimo T, Sanka K, Higuchi T, Hayashi K, Shirasaki Y, Mukai N, Saitoh S, Tokuyama K. Effects of physical training on cortical bone at midtibia assessed by peripheral QCT.  J Appl Physiol. 2003;  95 219-224
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Lloyd T, Chinchilli V M, Johnson-Rollings N, Kieselhorst K, Eggli D F, Marcus R. Adult female hip bone density reflects teenage sports-exercise patterns but not teenage calcium intake.  Pediatrics. 2000;  106 40-44
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Magnusson H, Linden C, Karlsson C, Obrant K J, Karlsson M K. Exercise may induce reversible low bone mass in unloaded and high bone mass in weight-loaded skeletal regions.  Osteoporos Int. 2001;  12 950-955
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Institute of Medicine .Dietary Reference Intakes: Application in Dietary Assessment. Washington, DC; The National Academic Press 2000
    Google Scholar
  • 27 Njeh C F, Hans D, Wu C, Kantorovich E, Sister M, Fuerst T, Genant H K. An in vitro investigation of the dependence on sample thickness of the speed of sound along the specimen.  Med Eng Phys. 1999;  21 651-659
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Nordstrom A, Karlsson C, Nyquist F, Olsson T, Nordstrom P, Karlsson M. Bone loss and fracture risk after reduced physical activity.  J Bone Miner Res. 2005;  20 202-207
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Rozen G S, Rennert G, Rennert H S, Diab G, Daud D, Ish-Shalom S. Calcium intake and bone mass development among Israeli adolescent girls.  J Am Coll Nutr. 2001;  20 219-224
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Schonau E, Wentzlik U, Michalk D, Scheidhauer K, Klein K. Is there an increase of bone density in children?.  Lancet. 1993;  342 689-690
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Schott A M, Weill-Engerer S, Hans D, Duboeuf F, Delmas P D, Meunier P J. Ultrasound discriminates patients with hip fracture equally well as dual energy X‐ray absorptiometry and independently of bone mineral density.  J Bone Miner Res. 1995;  10 243-249
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Simkin A, Leichter I, Swissa A, Samueloff S. The effect of swimming activity on bone architecture in growing rats.  J Biomech. 1989;  22 845-851
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Slaughter M H, Lohman T G, Boileau B A. Skinfold equations for estimation of body fatness in children and youth.  Hum Biol. 1988;  60 709-723
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Soderman K, Bergstrom E, Lorentzon R, Alfredson H. Bone mass and muscle strength in young female soccer players.  Calcif Tissue Int. 2000;  67 297-303
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Tanner J M. Growth at Adolescence. Oxford; Blackwell Scientific Publications 1962
    Google Scholar
  • 36 Trost S G, Pate R R, Sallis J F, Freedson P S, Taylor W C, Dowda M, Sirard J. Age and gender differences in objectively measured physical activity in youth.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;  34 350-355
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Vicente-Rodriguez G, Ara I, Perez-Gomez J, Serrano-Sanchez J A, Dorado C, Calbet J A. High femoral bone mineral density accretion in prepubertal soccer players.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;  36 1789-1795
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Vicente-Rodriguez G, Jimenez-Ramirez J, Ara I, Serrano-Sanchez J A, Dorado C, Calbet J A. Enhanced bone mass and physical fitness in prepubescent footballers.  Bone. 2003;  33 853-859
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Welch J M, Weaver C M, Turner C H. Adaptations to free-fall impact are different in the shafts and bone ends of rat forelimbs.  J Appl Physiol. 2004;  97 1859-1865
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Wittich A, Mautalen C A, Oliveri M B, Bagur A, Somoza F, Rotemberg E. Professional football (soccer) players have a markedly greater skeletal mineral content, density and size than age- and BMI-matched controls.  Calcif Tissue Int. 1998;  63 112-117
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar

Dr. Bareket Falk

Department of Physical Education and Kinesiology
Faculty of Applied Health Science
Brock University

500 Glenridge Avenue

St Catharines, ON, L2S 3A1

Canada

Phone: 49 79

Fax: + 90 56 88 83 64

Email: bareket.falk@brocku.ca

      >