Gastric cancer: Environmental risk factors, treatment, and prevention

Alexander Woodman; Mahmood Akhtar; Lamiaa Al-Jamea; Malek Sagher; Mohamed Sager

doi:10.4103/ijmbs.ijmbs_104_20

Ibnosina Journal of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Table of Contents

CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 · Ibnosina Journal of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences 2020; 12(03): 162-168
DOI: 10.4103/ijmbs.ijmbs_104_20

Review Article

Gastric cancer: Environmental risk factors, treatment, and prevention

Authors

Alexander Woodman

¹Postgraduate Studies and Research, Prince Sultan Military College of Health Sciences, Dhahran
Mahmood Akhtar

²Department of Biomedical Research Administration, King Fahad Specialist Hospital, Dammam
Lamiaa Al-Jamea

³Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Prince Sultan Military College of Health Sciences, Dammam
Malek Sagher

⁴Faculty of Medicine, University of Tripoli, Tripoli
Mohamed Sager

⁵Department of Clinical Trials, Research Center, King Fahad Specialist Hospital, Dammam

Abstract

Gastric cancer is a heterogeneous, multifactorial, aggressive disease that has been and remains one of the most common causes of cancer-related deaths and a significant public health issue worldwide. Currently, gastric cancer shows decreasing trends in its incidence and mortality in some geographic areas; however, the disease still shows a poor prognosis and remains difficult to cure. The prognosis for gastric cancer patients depends on the stage at which the gastric cancer is detected, and complete excision of the cancer is the only proven curative option. Gastric cancer prevention remains a priority. Patients at higher risk should be screened for early detection and chemoprophylaxis. Surgical resection enhanced by standardized lymphadenectomy remains the gold standard in the treatment of gastric cancer. Systemic therapy improves long-term disease-free survival compared to surgical treatment alone. Palliative chemotherapy in patients with inoperable gastric cancer prolongs survival and improves the quality of life. Demographic, ecological, environmental, cultural, and genetic variables all contribute to the heterogeneity of gastric cancer; however, environmental risk factors play an important role throughout all the stages of the disease progression, management, and surveillance. In this review, we address the role of important environmental risk factors in the onset of gastric cancer and highlight the current treatment modalities and prevention measures.

Key-words:

Diet - gastric cancer - prevention - prognosis - risk factors - treatment

Full Text

References

References
1 Yada T, Yokoi C, Uemura N. The current state of diagnosis and treatment for early gastric cancer. Diagn Ther Endosc 2013;2013:241320.
2 Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F, Forman D, Mathers C, Parkin DM. Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008. Int J Cancer 2010;127:2893-917.
3 Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D. Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 2011;61:69-90.
4 Nagini S. Carcinoma of the stomach: A review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, molecular genetics and chemoprevention. World J Gastrointest Oncol 2012;4:156-69.
5 Rawla P, Barsouk A. Epidemiology of gastric cancer: Global trends, risk factors and prevention. Prz Gastroenterol 2019;14:26-38.
6 Karimi P, Islami F, Anandasabapathy S, Freedman ND, Kamangar F. Gastric cancer: Descriptive epidemiology, risk factors, screening, and prevention. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2014;23:700-13.
7 Parkin DM. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents. Vol. 8. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2002.
8 Shah MA, Khanin R, Tang L, Janjigian YY, Klimstra DS, Gerdes H, et al. Molecular classification of gastric cancer: A new paradigm. Clin Cancer Res 2011;17:2693-701.
9 Fuccio L, Zagari RM, Minardi ME, Bazzoli F. Systematic review: Helicobacter pylori eradication for the prevention of gastric cancer. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007;25:133-41.
10 Choi IJ, Kim CG, Lee JY, Kim YI, Kook MC, Park B, et al. Family history of gastric cancer and Helicobacter pylori treatment. N Engl J Med 2020;382:427-36.
11 Shang J, Pena AS. Multidisciplinary approach to understand the pathogenesis of gastric cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2005;11:4131-9.
12 Correa P, Haenszel W, Cuello C, Tannenbaum S, Archer M. A model for gastric cancer epidemiology. Lancet 1975;2:58-60.
13 Webb PM, Yu MC, Forman D, Henderson BE, Newell DG, Yuan JM, et al. An apparent lack of association between Helicobacter pylori infection and risk of gastric cancer in China. Int J Cancer 1996;67:603-7.
14 Hansen S, Melby KK, Aase S, Jellum E, Vollset SE. Helicobacter pylori infection and risk of cardia cancer and non-cardia gastric cancer. A nested case-control study. Scand J Gastroenterol 1999;34:353-60.
15 Lin Y, Ueda J, Kikuchi S, Totsuka Y, Wei WQ, Qiao YL, et al. Comparative epidemiology of gastric cancer between Japan and China. World J Gastroenterol 2011;17:4421-8.
16 Thrift AP, El-Serag HB. Burden of gastric cancer. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020;18:534-42.
17 McLean MH, El-Omar EM. Genetics of gastric cancer. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014;11:664-74.
18 Aziz F, Chen X, Yang X, Yan Q. Prevalence and correlation with clinical diseases of Helicobacter pylori cagA and vacA genotype among gastric patients from Northeast China. Biomed Res Int 2014;2014:142980.
19 Kang GH, Shim YH, Jung HY, Kim WH, Ro JY, Rhyu MG. CpG island methylation in premalignant stages of gastric carcinoma. Cancer Res 2001;61:2847-51.
20 Kim SS, Ruiz VE, Carroll JD, Moss SF. Helicobacter pylori in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer and gastric lymphoma. Cancer Lett 2011;305:228-38.
21 Murphy G, Thornton J, McManus R, Swan N, Ryan B, Hughes DJ, et al. Association of gastric disease with polymorphisms in the inflammatory-related genes IL-1B, IL-1RN, IL-10, TNF and TLR4. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;21:630-5.
22 Kimang'a AN. IL-1B-511 Allele T and IL-1RN-L/L play a pathologcal role in helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) disease outcome in the African population. Ethiop J Health Sci 2012;22:163-9.
23 Lott PC, Carvajal-Carmona LG. Resolving gastric cancer aetiology: An update in genetic predisposition. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018;3:874-83.
24 Oliveira C, Pinheiro H, Figueiredo J, Seruca R, Carneiro F. Familial gastric cancer: Genetic susceptibility, pathology, and implications for management. Lancet Oncol 2015;16:e60-70.
25 World Cancer Research Fund International. Continuous Update Project Report: Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Prostate Cancer. World Cancer Research Fund International; 2014. Available from: http://www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Prostate-Cancer-2014-Report.pdf. [Last accessed on 2020 Aug 12].
26 Kneller RW, Guo WD, Hsing AW, Chen JS, Blot WJ, Li JY, et al. Risk factors for stomach cancer in sixty-five Chinese counties. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1992;1:113-8.
27 Taniyama Y, Katanoda K, Charvat H, Hori M, Ohno Y, Sasazuki S, et al. Estimation of lifetime cumulative incidence and mortality risk of gastric cancer. Jpn J Clin Oncol 2017;47:1097-102.
28 Jakszyn P, Gonzalez CA. Nitrosamine and related food intake and gastric and oesophageal cancer risk: A systematic review of the epidemiological evidence. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12:4296-303.
29 Liu C, Russell RM. Nutrition and gastric cancer risk: An update. Nutr Rev 2008;66:237-49.
30 Lunet N, Valbuena C, Vieira AL, Lopes C, Lopes C, David L, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption and gastric cancer by location and histological type: Case-control and meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer Prev 2007;16:312-27.
31 World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Wholegrains, Vegetables and Fruit and the Risk of Cancer; 2018. Available from: https://www.wcrf.org/dietandcancer/exposures/wholegrains-veg-fruit. [Last accessed on 2020 Sep 11].
32 Zhang ZW, Farthing MJ. The roles of vitamin C in Helicobacter pylori associated gastric carcinogenesis. Chin J Dig Dis 2005;6:53-8.
33 González CA, Pera G, Agudo A, Palli D, Krogh V, Vineis P, et al. Smoking and the risk of gastric cancer in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Int J Cancer 2003;107:629-34.
34 Masciari S, Dewanwala A, Stoffel EM, Lauwers GY, Zheng H, Achatz MI, et al. Gastric cancer in individuals with Li-Fraumeni syndrome. Genet Med 2011;13:651-7.
35 Sadjadi A, Derakhshan MH, Yazdanbod A, Boreiri M, Parsaeian M, Babaei M, et al. Neglected role of hookah and opium in gastric carcinogenesis: A cohort study on risk factors and attributable fractions. Int J Cancer 2014;134:181-8.
36 Ramos MF, Ribeiro Júnior U, Viscondi JK, Zilberstein B, Cecconello I, Eluf-Neto J. Risk factors associated with the development of gastric cancer—case-control study. Rev da Assoc Méd Brasileira 2018;64:611-9.
37 Roukos DH. Genome-wide association studies and aggressive surgery toward individualized prevention, and improved local control and overall survival for gastric cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 2009;16:795-8.
38 Fock KM, Talley N, Moayyedi P, Hunt R, Azuma T, Sugano K, et al. Asia-pacific consensus guidelines on gastric cancer prevention. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;23:351-65.
39 Ford AC, Forman D, Hunt RH, Yuan Y, Moayyedi P. Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy to prevent gastric cancer in healthy asymptomatic infected individuals: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2014;348:g3174.
40 Yoshida K, Yamaguchi K, Okumura N, Osada S, Takahashi T, Tanaka Y, et al. The roles of surgical oncologists in the new era–minimally invasive surgery for early gastric cancer and adjuvant surgery for metastatic gastric cancer. Pathobiology 2011;78:343-52.