Key-words: Cranialization - frontal sinus fracture - pericranial flap - periosteal graft
Introduction
Management of extensive frontal sinus fractures in case of traumatic brain injury
(TBI) has been a concern for 100 years.[[1 ]] The surgical techniques for management frontal sinus were derived from the treatment
of frontal sinusitis and had many complications. Because of the complications, it
remains controversial. In this patient, extensive disruption of the posterior table
of the frontal sinus has a reasonable prognosis for recovery, ablation of the frontal
sinus by cranialization has been recommended.[[2 ]]
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage development has been a major concern. Patients would
require a craniotomy to access the injured site of the brain to allow better visualization
of any tears of the dura.[[3 ]] In this case, the frontal sinus has been closed by periosteal flap and nasofrontal
duct has been obliterated by muscular patch. This maneuver is advocated and practiced
by many surgeons to separate the paranasal sinuses from the brain. To decrease the
incidence of a CSF leak following a dural repair, several techniques, including the
use of allogenic and autogenous materials, have been recommended.
Pericranial flaps based on the supraorbital and supratrochlear vasculature have previously
been used with significant success for the separation of intracranial and extracranial
spaces after major trauma and reconstructive effort in the head, especially anterior
skull base. Although frontal sinus obliteration also requires the removal of sinus
mucosa and separation from the nasal vault, protection of the exposed intracranial
contents is a critical issue encountered only during cranialization.[[2 ]]
Case Report
A 19-year-old female with a history of decreased consciousness after a traffic accident
in 2016, fell from a motorcycle. Primary survey was performed; there was an open wound
with fractured skull based on the left frontal region. The patient came with Glasgow
Coma Scale (GCS) E3V3M5 with pupil round, equal 3 mm on both eyes, and light reflex
was normal on both eyes. Laboratory tests were performed, there was no abnormality
on laboratory results. Noncontrast head computed tomography (CT) scan was performed.
Depressed fracture and biconvex-shaped hematoma were found on the left frontal region.
The patient was diagnosed with moderate TBI, epidural hematoma (EDH) on the left frontal
region, and open frontal sinus fracture. Craniotomy evacuation of EDH, cranialization,
decortication, and debridement was performed [[Figure 1 ]].
Figure 1: Initial computed tomography scan before the surgery, depressed fracture with epidural
hematoma was seen
After the surgery, the patient's condition was gradually improved, was put under postoperative
care for a few days, and was subsequently discharged. However, the head CT scan on
postoperative day 30, a pneumatocele was present at the frontal region [[Figure 2 ]]. Despite of radiologic findings, the patient did not have any major complaints.
Figure 2: Evaluative computed tomography scan 30 days after the first surgery
The patient was returned to the hospital 22 months after the surgery with a chief
complaint of rhinorrhea and severe headache for 3 months. The patient was prescribed
pain-killer drugs, but the complaint did not significantly improve. The headache worsened
without a decrease of consciousness. Head magnetic resonance imaging was performed
to investigate the underlying causes. T2 sequence was suggestive of arachnoid cyst
filled with CSF on the left frontal area. Differential diagnosis included a frontal
defect at the previous surgical site [[Figure 3 ]].
Figure 3: T2 sequence of the head magnetic resonance imaging revealed cerebrospinal fluid accumulation
at the frontal region
General examination and vital signs were normal. On neurological examination, the
GCS was E4V5M6 with round and equal pupil and bilaterally positive light reflex. There
was no lateralization or sensoric deficit. Thin-sliced head CT scan was performed
to observe any presence of skull base defect [[Figure 4 ]].
Figure 4: Skull base defect detected on head computed tomography scan
The patient underwent second craniotomy with supine position, and bicoronal incision
uses old scars as mark. After doing skin flap, periosteal, and bone flap, the defect
of frontal sinus can be exposed. The main problem of this procedure is shortness of
the periosteal flap because the patient had been underwent surgical periosteal flap
before in EDH and first decranialization. For this procedure, we prepare for redecortication
of the frontal sinus, defect exploration, defect closure with modification periosteal
graft and temporal muscle, and external ventricular drainage (EVD) on the right Kocher
point. Defect closure was modified due to the short nature of the frontal periosteum,
some periosteal from temporal muscle grafted to make primary periosteal flap longer.
Defect closure could be optimum. The primary suture was done to stitch it with temporal
muscle using standard bicoronal incision and skin flap [[Figure 5 ]].
Figure 5: (a) Defect of dura mater exposed. (b) Some defect closed by a part of the frontal
periosteal flap. (c) The modification of addition of the periosteal flap had been
stitched on old periosteal flap. Extraperiosteal flap was taken from the temporal
region
Postoperative general and neurological statuses were good, headache had receded, and
rhinorrhea had stopped. On postoperative 3rd day, patient's consciousness improved
and headache decreased. On evaluative CT scan, the pneumocephalus had gotten smaller.
The second and third evaluations on 9th and 13th revealed that pneumocephalus appeared
even smaller. After 8 days of surgery, the patient has done a dependent test for the
shunt, and CSF analysis was sterile. In this patient we performed ventriculo-peritoneal
Shunt due to shunt dependent. The last CT performed on 1 month after surgery showed
that the pneumocephalus had improved further. There was a slight hyperdense appearance
which was suspected for a minute bleeding [[Figure 6 ]].
Figure 6: (a) Three days after defect closure, pneumocephalus still present; (b) 9 days after
defect closure, pneumocephalus volume was decreased; (c) One month after defect closure;
(d) Six months after defect closure, pneumocephalus has been disappeared on the left
frontal region
Improvement of the clinical appearance of the patient after undergo this procedure
is followed until 6 months. There are no major complaints, and then, the patient followed
by an evaluation of CT scan and pneumocephalus of the left frontal side has been decreased.
Surgical technique
The patient's entire scalp is shaved. After administration of a local anesthetic with
a vasoconstrictor, a standard bi-temporal incision is made, and the bi-temporal flap
elevation is performed in a subgaleal plane up to the nasofrontal area. The first
three layers of the scalp (skin, subcutaneous tissue, and galea aponeurotica) are
elevated, whereas the pericranium and loose areolar connective tissue are left attached
to the skull. The pericranial flap is then outlined. The length of the flap cannot
be as long as the initial scalp incision, so it can be extended by performing a subgaleal
dissection further posteriorly beyond the initial scalp incision. The lateral extents
of the flap correspond to the temporal fusion lines, where the superficial and deep
layers of the deep temporal fascia fuse with the pericranium. The pericranial flap
anteriorly and based on the deep branches of the supraorbital and supratrochlear arteries.
A subperiosteal dissection is then performed to elevate the pericranial flap from
the skull to the level of the supraorbital rims. The fractured frontal sinus and anterior
cranial fossa are exposed. Necrotic brain is removed, and any dural tears are closed
primarily with nonresorbable sutures. Fibrin sealant is applied over the repair. The
mucosa is removed from the sinus walls as well as from the nasofrontal ducts, and
a peripheral ostectomy is performed. If a formal craniotomy has been performed, the
pericranial flap is adapted to line the anterior cranial fossa. In this case, there
is defect at dura mater that makes leakage of the CSF. The modification of pericranial
flap is the addition of the periosteal graft from temporal. It can be sutured to the
dura or can be placed passively. The anterior wall is replaced and secured using plates
and screws. All bony impingements on the vascular supply of the flap must be relieved.
The bitemporal flap is then closed in a layered fashion, and a pressure dressing is
applied and maintained for 48 h.
Discussion
Separation of the brain tissue from the paranasal sinus space is a consideration in
many surgical procedures. Cranial base tumor resection and trauma with a significant
injury to the frontal sinus and skull base may lead to communication between the brain
tissue and paranasal sinuses and may be complicated by a dural tear and CSF leak.
A communication between these environments should be surgically repaired to prevent
future complications such as retrograde spread of infection from the paranasal region
into the brain resulting in meningitis or subdural and brain abscesses. Many techniques
are described in the literature regarding frontal sinus obliteration (Fattahi, 2009).
Actually in this case, the management of the fracture of frontal sinus had been done.
Complication acquired is CSF leakage, it could be inadequate of decranialization.
In the other hand, intraoperative decision of closing, the dural defect could be very
difficult and tricky. In this presented case, we found shortening of the pericranial
flap.
Many uses for the pericranial flap can be found in the literature. It has been used
for the reconstruction of nasal septal defects, coverage of cochlear implants,[[7 ]] and reconstruction of external auditory canal following mastoidectomy, periorbital
soft-tissue reconstruction, coverage of soft-tissue defects with bone exposure such
as in full-thickness avulsion of scalp defects due to trauma and reconstruction.[[8 ]] The pericranial flap has also been extensively used in craniofacial reconstruction
to provide soft-tissue bulk. In trauma surgery, this flap gives the surgeon the opportunity
to seal a CSF leak and provides viable tissue for the obliteration of the frontal
sinus and the isolation of the intracranial from the paranasal environment. Since
it is locally available during the bitemporal flap elevation, it obviates the need
for other autogenous or allogeneic materials, such as abdominal fat, tensor fascia
lata, or synthetic bone cements.[[4 ]],[[5 ]],[[6 ]] Consideration of the main vasculature of this case should be as the first. We decided
to use periosteal graft.
The anteriorly based pericranial flap, as used in this report, has a reliable vascular
supply that has been extensively studied. This axial flap is based on the deep branches
of the supraorbital and supratrochlear arteries. Anatomical studies performed by Yoshioka
and colleagues recommend that dissection in the subgaleal plane does not extend past
1 cm cephalad to the supraorbital ridge, to avoid compromising the blood supply to
the flap secondary to the variation in the anatomy of the bifurcation of the superficial
and deep branches of the supraorbital and supratrochlear arteries.[[7 ]] Venous drainage of the flap is by means of the transverse supraorbital vein, which
also courses within 1 cm cephalad to the supraorbital rim.[[9 ]] The entire flap can be elevated and used to obliterate the frontal sinus or line
the anterior cranial fossa, or it can be sectioned in the midline while maintaining
the blood supply to each half of the flap.
Based on the research of Yoshioka, 2005, about the vascular anatomy of anterior based
on the pericranial flap, the frontal pericranial flap has to focused on the deep arteries
and veins supplying the pericranium [[Figure 7 ]]. The deep branches of the supraorbital and supratrochlear arteries that supply
the frontal pericranial flap divided from the supraorbital and supratrochlear arteries
at the level of the supraorbital rim or below in approximately 70% of cases. In the
remainder, the deep pericranial branches of the supraorbital or supratrochlear artery
were separated from the superficial branch 5.5–15 mm (mean: 8.6 mm) above the orbital
rim. If the separation of pericranium from the galea-frontalis layer begins near the
coronal suture and extends downward to the orbital rim, the major deep branches to
the pericranium will be transected in nearly 30% of cases. Actually, in this case,
we still preserve for the vascularization of the flap from supraorbital and supratrochlear
and gives a modification, adding a rich vascularization graft from the temporal region
at the same side.[[10 ]]
Figure 7: Diagrams of illustrating the vascular anatomy of the anteriorly based frontal pericranial
flap; (a) frontal region with the skin and galeafrontalis layer reflected forward
leaving the pericranium attached to the bone. The supraorbital artery anastomoses
medially with branches of the supratrochlear artery and laterally with branches of
the superficial temporal artery. The supratrochlear artery anastomoses medially with
branches of the dorsal nasal artery. The veins in the supraorbital area form a large
transverse channel called the transverse supraorbital vein, into which the superficial
branches from the galea-frontalis layer and deep branches from the pericranium empty.
There are also some tiny anastomoses distally between the superficial and deep branches
of the arteries that are divided when the galea-frontalis layer is separated from
the pericranium; (b) medial view of a sagittal section of the right frontal region.
The skin and galea-frontalis layer have been reflected forward, leaving the pericranium
attached to the bone. In the most common pattern, the supraorbital and supratrochlear
arteries divide into superficial and deep branches at the level of orbital rim as
shown; (c) in 20% of cases, the main trunk of the supraorbital artery divides into
superficial and deep pericranial branches several millimeters above the level of the
orbital rim. The deep branch would be transected if the separation of the galeal-frontalis
layer from the pericranium extended down to the orbital rim; (d) when a supraorbital
foramen is present as shown, the deep branch of the supraorbital nerve and a small
deep pericranial artery usually pass through the foramen. The larger superficial trunk
of the supraorbital artery and part of the nerve usually pass around the supraorbital
rim rather than through the supraorbital foramen as shown
The study of the Yoshioka and Rhoton, 2005, the supraorbital nerve courses along the
orbital roof and divide into superficial and deep branches near the orbital rim. The
superficial branch enters the galea-frontalis layer, and the deep branch ascends on
the pericranium. The supratrochlear nerve had only a superficial branch that disappeared
into the corrugator muscle at the level of the supraorbital rim. Supraorbital artery,
the main or superficial trunk of the supraorbital artery, the major supply of a frontal
pericranial flap that is based on the supraorbital rim gave rise to an average of
2.4 (range: 2–4 mm), deep pericranial branches having an average diameter of 0.59
mm (range, 0.2–1.2 mm). Supratrochlear artery, a smaller and more medially coursing
vessel than the supraorbital artery, entered the corrugator muscle at the level of
the supraorbital rim and divided into a superficial branch to the superficial layers
of the scalp and a deep branch to the pericranium. The supratrochlear arteries give
rise to an average of 1.5 (range: 1–3 mm), deep branches having an average diameter
of 0.39 mm (range: 0.2–0.8 mm).The venous drainage of the frontal scalp is divided
into a group of larger veins that drain the superficial layers of the scalp, including
the galea-frontalis layer, and a group of smaller veins that drain the pericranium.
Supraorbital and supratrochlear nerve, the supraorbital nerve coursed along the orbital
roof and turned upward at the orbital rim. It had superficial and deep branches. The
superficial branch passed around the orbital rim, entered the galea-frontalis layer
near the supraorbital rim, and ascended in the frontal scalp. In assumption that kind
of anatomical structure, this modification of standard procedure adding a periosteal
graft for pericranial flap could have satisfaction results.[[10 ]]
Declaration of patient consent
The authors certify that they have obtained all appropriate patient consent forms.
In the form the patient(s) has/have given his/her/their consent for his/her/their
images and other clinical information to be reported in the journal. The patients
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