Anästhesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther 2003; 38(3): 168-190
DOI: 10.1055/s-2003-37775
Fort- und Weiterbildung
© Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart · New York

Thorakale Epiduralanästhesie

Thoracic Epidural AnaesthesiaR.  Scherer1 , R.  Giebler2
  • 1Zentrale Abteilung für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, Evangelisches und Johanniter Klinikum Duisburg/Dinslaken/Oberhausen
  • 2Abteilung für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Essen
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
12 March 2003 (online)

Die positiven Einflüsse der thorakalen Epiduralanästhesie auf die Darmfunktion, die endokrine Funktion und auf die Ergebnisse gefäßchirurgischer Operationen [1] sind in anderen Übersichten zusammengefasst [2] [3] [4]. Allerdings bleiben die klinischen Daten hinsichtlich der Beeinflussung der Darmmotilität widersprüchlich. Obwohl die TEA bei Darmresektionen eine perioperativ bessere Analgesie als eine i. v.-PCA bewirkte, führte sie aus chirurgischer Sicht nicht zu einer schnelleren Wiederherstellung der Darmmotilität und verkürzte den Klinikaufenthalt nicht [5].

Literatur

  • 1 Bois S, Couture P, Boudreault D, Lacombe P, Fugere F, Girard D, Nadeau N. Epidural analgesia and intravenous patient-controlled analgesia result in similar rates of postoperative myocardial ischemia after aortic surgery.  Anesth Analg. 1997;  85 1233-1239
  • 2 Brodner G, Meissner A, Rolf N, van Aken H. Die thorakale Epiduralanästhesie - mehr als nur ein Anästhesieverfahren.  Anaesthesist. 1997;  46 751-762
  • 3 Litz R J, Albrecht D M. Thorakale Epiduralanästhesie.  Anaesthesist.. 2001;  50 194-197
  • 4 Christopherson R, Beattie C, Frank S M, Norris E J, Meinert C L, Gottlieb S O, Yates H, Rock P, Parker S D, Perler B A. et al . Perioperative morbidity in patients randomized to epidural or general anesthesia for lower extremity vascular surgery. Perioperative Ischemia Randomized Anesthesia Trial Study Group.  Anesthesiology. 1993;  79 422-434
  • 5 Paulsen E K, Porter M G, Helmer S D, Linhardt P W, Kliewer M L. Thoracic epidural versus patient-controlled analgesia in elective bowel resections.  Am J Surg. 2001;  182 570-577
  • 6 Schiebler T H. Lehrbuch der gesamten Anatomie des Menschen. Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 1977: 174
  • 7 Grau T, Leipold R W, Delorme S, Martin E, Motsch J. Ultrasound imaging of the thoracic epidural space.  Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2002;  27 200-206
  • 8 Minzter B H, Johnson R F, Grimm B J. The practice of thoracic epidural analgesia: a survey of academic medical centers in the United States.  Anesth Analg. 2002;  95 472-475
  • 9 Bosenberg A T, Bland B A, Schulte-Steinberg O, Downing J W. Thoracic epidural anesthesia via caudal route in infants.  Anesthesiology. 1988;  69 265-269
  • 10 Tsui B C, Seal R, Koller J. Thoracic epidural catheter placement via the caudal approach in infants by using electrocardiographic guidance.  Anesth Analg. 2002;  95 326-330
  • 11 Valairucha S, Seefelder C, Houck C S. Thoracic epidural catheters placed by the caudal route in infants: the importance of radiographic confirmation.  Paediatr Anaesth. 2002;  12 424-428
  • 12 Sundberg A, Wattwil M, Arvill A. Respiratory effects of high thoracic epidural anaesthesia.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1986;  30 215-217
  • 13 Groeben H, Schafer B, Pavlakovic G, Silvanus M T, Peters J. Lung function under high thoracic segmental epidural anesthesia with ropivacaine or bupivacaine in patients with severe obstructive pulmonary disease undergoing breast surgery.  Anesthesiology. 2002;  96 536-541
  • 14 Groeben H, Schwalen A, Irsfeld S, Stieglitz S, Lipfert P, Hopf H B. Intravenous lidocaine and bupivacaine dose-dependently attenuate bronchial hyperreactivity in awake volunteers.  Anesthesiology. 1996;  84 533-539
  • 15 Hopf H B, Weissbach B, Peters J. High thoracic segmental epidural anesthesia diminishes sympathetic outflow to the legs, despite restriction of sensory blockade to the upper thorax.  Anesthesiology. 1990;  73 882-889
  • 16 Gruber E M, Tschernko E M, Kritzinger M, Deviatko E, Wisser W, Zurakowski D, Haider W. The effects of thoracic epidural analgesia with bupivacaine 0.25% on ventilatory mechanics in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.  Anesth Analg. 2001;  92 1015-1019
  • 17 Veering B T, Cousins M J. Cardiovascular and pulmonary effects of epidural anaesthesia.  Anaesth Intensive Care. 2000;  28 20-635
  • 18 Grant G J, Zakowski M, Ramanathan S, Boyd A, Turndorf H. Thoracic versus lumbar administration of epidural morphine for postoperative analgesia after thoracotomy.  Reg Anesth. 1993;  18 351-355
  • 19 Hurford W E, Dutton R P, Alfille P H, Clement D, Wilson R S. Comparison of thoracic and lumbar epidural infusions of bupivacaine and fentanyl for post-thoracotomy analgesia.  J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 1993;  7 521-525
  • 20 Boisseau N, Rabary O, Padovani B, Staccini P, Mouroux J, Grimaud D, Raucoules-Aime M. Improvement of ‘dynamic analgesia’ does not decrease atelectasis after thoracotomy.  Br J Anaesth. 2001;  87 564-569
  • 21 Snijdelaar D G, Hasenbos M A, van Egmond J, Wolff A P, Liem T H. High thoracic epidural sufentanil with bupivacaine: continuous infusion of high volume versus low volume.  Anesth Analg. 1994;  78 490-494
  • 22 Swenson J D, Hullander R M, Bready R J, Leivers D. A comparison of patient controlled epidural analgesia with sufentanil by the lumbar versus thoracic route after thoracotomy.  Anesth Analg. 1994;  78 215-218
  • 23 Bloch M B, Dyer R A, Heijke S A, James M F. Tramadol infusion for postthoracotomy pain relief: a placebo-controlled comparison with epidural morphine.  Anesth Analg. 2002;  94 523-528
  • 24 Hu J S, Lui P W, Wang H, Chan K H, Luk H N, Tsou M Y, Lee T Y. Thoracic epidural analgesia with morphine does not prevent postthoracotomy pain syndrome: a survey of 159 patients.  Acta Anaesthesiol Sin. 2000;  38 195-200
  • 25 Wurnig P N, Lackner H, Teiner C, Hollaus P H, Pospisil M, Fohsl-Grande B, Osarowsky M, Pridun N S. Is intercostal block for pain management in thoracic surgery more successful than epidural anaesthesia?.  Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2002;  21 1115-1119
  • 26 Niemi G, Breivik H. Epinephrine markedly improves thoracic epidural analgesia produced by a small-dose infusion of ropivacaine, fentanyl, and epinephrine after major thoracic or abdominal surgery: a randomized, double-blinded crossover study with and without epinephrine.  Anesth Analg. 2002;  94 1598-1605
  • 27 Carli F, Mayo N, Klubien K, Schricker T, Trudel J, Belliveau P. Epidural analgesia enhances functional exercise capacity and health-related quality of life after colonic surgery: results of a randomized trial.  Anesthesiology. 2002;  97 540-549
  • 28 Scherer R, Schmutzler M, Erhard J, Lenz A, Stöcker L. Zur Integration der thorakalen Epiduralanästhesie in die Anästhesie bei abdominellen Eingriffen.  Anaesthesist. 1992;  41 260-265
  • 29 Brodner G, van Aken H, Hertle L, Fobker M, von Eckardstein A, Goeters C, Buerkle H, Harks A, Kehlet H. Multimodal perioperative management - combining thoracic epidural analgesia, forced mobilization, and oral nutrition - reduces hormonal and metabolic stress and improves convalescence after major urologic surgery.  Anesth Analg. 2001;  92 1594-1600
  • 30 Taniguchi M, Kasaba T, Takasaki M. Epidural anesthesia enhances sympathetic nerve activity in the unanesthetized segments in cats.  Anesth Analg. 1997;  84 391-397
  • 31 Hogan Q H, Stadnicka A, Stekiel T A, Bosnjak Z J, Kampine J P. Effects of epidural and systemic lidocaine on sympathetic activity and mesenteric circulation in rabbits.  Anesthesiology. 1993;  79 1250-1260
  • 32 Schlack W, Thamer V. Thoracic epidural anesthesia reduces the severity of myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs.  Anesth Analg. 1997;  85 465-466
  • 33 Blomberg S G. Long-term home self-treatment with high thoracic epidural anesthesia in patients with severe coronary artery disease.  Anesth Analg. 1994;  79 413-421
  • 34 Olausson K, Magnusdottir H, Lurje L, Wennerblom B, Emanuelsson H, Ricksten S E. Antiischemic and antianginal effects of thoracic epidural anesthesia versus those of conventional medical therapy in the treatment of severe refractory unstable angina pectoris.  Circulation. 1997;  96 2178-2182
  • 35 Yeager M P, Glass D D, Neff R K, Brinck-Johnsen T. Epidural anesthesia and analgesia in high-risk surgical patients.  Anesthesiology. 1987;  66 729-736
  • 36 Beattie W S, Badner N H, Choi P. Epidural analgesia reduces postoperative myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis.  Anesth Analg. 2001;  93 853-858
  • 37 Wattwil M, Sundberg A, Arvill A, Lennquist C. Circulatory changes during high thoracic epidural anaesthesia - influence of sympathetic block and of systemic effect of the local anaesthetic.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1985;  29 849-855
  • 38 Oka T, Ozawa Y, Ohkubo Y. Thoracic epidural bupivacaine attenuates supraventricular tachyarrhythmias after pulmonary resection.  Anesth Analg. 2001;  93 253-259
  • 39 Saada M, Catoire P, Bonnet F, Delaunay L, Gormezano G, Macquin-Mavier I, Brun P. Effect of thoracic epidural anesthesia combined with general anesthesia on segmental wall motion assessed by transesophageal echocardiography.  Anesth Analg. 1992;  75 329-335
  • 40 Saada M, Duval A M, Bonnet F, Rey B, Castillon G, Macquin-Mavier I, Cabrit R, Boico O, Castaigne A. Abnormalities in myocardial segmental wall motion during lumbar epidural anesthesia.  Anesthesiology. 1989;  71 26-32
  • 41 Urban M K, Markowitz S M, Gordon M A, Urquhart B L, Kligfield P. Postoperative prophylactic administration of beta-adrenergic blockers in patients at risk for myocardial ischemia.  Anesth Analg. 2000;  90 1257-1261
  • 42 Pollard J B. Common mechanisms and strategies for prevention and treatment of cardiac arrest during epidural anesthesia.  J Clin Anesth. 2002;  14 52-56
  • 43 Karagoz H Y, Sönmez B, Bakkaloglu B, Kortoglu M, Erdinc M, Türkeli A, Bayazit K. Coronary artery bypass grafting in the conscious patient without endotracheal general anesthesia.  Ann Thorac Surg. 2000;  70 91-96
  • 44 Anderson M B, Kwong K F, Furst A J, Salerno T A. Thoracic epidural anesthesia for cardiac surgery via left anterior thoracotomy in the conscious patient.  Heart Surg Forum. 2002;  5 105-108
  • 45 Kessler P, Neidhart G, Lischke V, Bremerich D H, Aybek T, Dogan S, Byhahn C. Koronare Bypassoperation mit kompletter medianer Sternotomie am wachen Patienten in hoher thorakaler Periduralanästhesie.  Anaesthesist. 2002;  51 533-538
  • 46 Aybek T, Dogan S, Neidhart G, Kessler P, Matheis G, Wimmer-Greinecker G, Moritz A. Coronary artery bypass grafting through complete sternotomy in conscious patients.  Heart Surg Forum. 2002;  5 7-20
  • 47 Priestley M C, Cope L, Halliwell R, Gibson P, Chard R B, Skinner M, Klineberg P L. Thoracic epidural anesthesia for cardiac surgery: the effects on tracheal intubation time and length of hospital stay.  Anesth Analg. 2002;  94 275-282
  • 48 Loick H M, Schmidt C, van Aken H, Junker R, Erren M, Berendes E, Rolf N, Meissner A, Schmid C, Scheld H H, Möllhoff T. High thoracic epidural anesthesia, but not clonidine, attenuates the perioperative stress response via sympatholysis and reduces the release of troponin T in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting.  Anesth Analg. 1999;  88 701-709
  • 49 Kirno K, Friberg P, Grzegorczyk A, Milocco I, Ricksten S E, Lundin S. Thoracic epidural anesthesia during coronary artery bypass surgery: effects on cardiac sympathetic activity, myocardial blood flow and metabolism, and central hemodynamics.  Anesth Analg. 1994;  79 1075-1081
  • 50 Jideus L, Joachimsson P O, Stridsberg M, Ericson M, Tyden H, Nilsson L, Blomstrom P, Blomstrom-Lundqvist C. Thoracic epidural anesthesia does not influence the occurrence of postoperative sustained atrial fibrillation.  Ann Thorac Surg. 2001;  72 65-71
  • 51 Scott N B, Turfrey D J, Ray D A, Nzewi O, Sutcliffe N P, Lal A B, Norrie J, Nagels W J, Ramayya G P. A prospective randomized study of the potential benefits of thoracic epidural anesthesia and analgesia in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting.  Anesth Analg. 2001;  93 528-535
  • 52 Aromaa U, Lahdensuu M, Cozanitis D A. Severe complications associated with epidural and spinal anaesthesias in Finland 1987-1993. A study based on patient insurance claims.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1997;  41 445-452
  • 53 Kane R E. Neurologic deficits following epidural or spinal anesthesia.  Anesth Analg. 1981;  60 150-161
  • 54 Auroy Y, Narch P, Messiah A, Litt L, Rouvier B, Samii K. Serious complications related to regional anesthesia: results of a prospective survey in France.  Anesthesiology. 1997;  87 479-486
  • 55 Giebler R M, Scherer R U, Peters J. Incidence of neurologic complications related to thoracic epidural catheterization.  Anesthesiology. 1997;  86 55-63
  • 56 Dahlgren N, Tornebrandt K. Neurological complications after anaesthesia. A follow-up of 18000 spinal and epidural anaesthetics performed over 3 years.  Acta Anaesthiol Scand. 1995;  39 872-880
  • 57 Lovstad R Z, Steen P A, Forsman M. Paraplegia after thoracotomy - not caused by the epidural catheter.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1999;  43 230-232
  • 58 Matsuura J A, Makhoul R G, Posner M P, Smith J, Litwack R S. Intradural herniation of a thoracic disc causing paraplegia coincident with epidural anesthesia.  Anesth Analg. 1997;  84 922-923
  • 59 Rutter S V, Jeevananthan V, Souter R, Cowen M J. „Shared spinal cord scenario”: paraplegia following abdominal aortic surgery under combined general and epidural anaesthesia.  Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1999;  16 646-649
  • 60 Aylward P E, Wicox R G, Horgan J H, White H D, Granger C B, Califf R M, Topol E J. Relation of increased arterial blood pressure to mortality and stroke in the context of contemporary thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction. A randomized trial. GUSTO-I Investigators.  Ann Intern Med. 1996;  125 891-900
  • 61 Fibrinolytic Therapy Trialists (FFT) Collaborative Group . Indications for fibrinolytic therapy in suspected acute myocardial infarction: collaborative overview of early mortality and major morbidity results from all randomized trials of more than 1000 patients.  Lancet. 1994;  343 311-322
  • 62 Fisher H B. Regional anaesthesia - before or after general anaesthesia?.  Anaesthesia. 1998;  53 727-729
  • 63 Bromage P R. Neurological complications of subarachnoid and epidural anaesthesia.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1997;  41 439-444
  • 64 Grady R E, Horlocker T T, Brown R D, Maxson P M, Schroeder D R. Neurologic complications after placement of cerebrospinal fluid drainage catheters and needles in anesthetized patients: implications for regional anesthesia. Mayo Perioperative Outcomes Group.  Anesth Analg. 1999;  88 388-392
  • 65 Scherer R, Schmutzler M, Giebler R, Erhard J, Stöcker L, Kox W J. Complications related to thoracic epidural anesthesia: A prospective study in 1071 surgical patients.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1993;  37 370-374
  • 66 Tanaka K, Watanabe R, Harada T, Dan K. Extensive application of epidural anesthesia and analgesia in a university hospital. Incidence of complications related to technique.  Reg Anesth. 1993;  18 34-38
  • 67 Wheatley R G, Schug S A, Watson D. Safety and efficacy of postoperative epidural analgesia.  Br J Anaesth. 2001;  87 47-61
  • 68 Scott D A, Beilby D SN, McClymont C. Postoperative analgesia using epidural infusions of fentanyl with bupivacaine - A prospective analysis of 1,014 patients.  Anesthesiology. 1995;  83 727-737
  • 69 Vandermeulen E P, van Aken H, Vermylen J. Anticoagulants and spinal epidural anesthesia.  Anesth Analg. 1994;  79 1167-1177
  • 70 Stafford-Smith M. Impaired haemostasis and regional anaesthesia.  Can J Anaesth. 1996;  43 129-141
  • 71 Renck H. Neurological complications of central nerve blocks.  Acta Anaesthiol Scand. 1995;  38 859-868
  • 72 Tryba M. Epidural regional anesthesia and low molecular heparin: Pro.  Anaethesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther. 1993;  28 179-181
  • 73 Vandermeulen E, Gogarten W, van Aken H. Risiken und Komplikationsmöglichkeiten der Periduralanästhesie.  Anaesthesist. 1997;  46 (Suppl 3) 179-186
  • 74 Gogarten W, van Aken H, Wulf H, Klose R, Vandermeulen E, Harenberg J. Rückenmarksnahe Regionalanästhesien und Thromboembolieprophylaxe/ Antikoagulation: Empfehlungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, Oktober 1997.  Anästhesiol Intensivmed. 1997;  12 623-628
  • 75 Chaney M A. Intrathecal and epidural anesthesia and analgesia for cardiac surgery.  Anesth Analg. 1997;  84 1211-1221
  • 76 Tenling A, Joachimsson P O, Tyden H, Hedenstierna G. Thoracic epidural analgesia as an adjunct to general anaesthesia for cardiac surgery.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2000;  44 1071-1076
  • 77 Turfrey D J, Ray D AA, Sutcliffe N P, Ramayya P, Kenny G NC, Scott N B. Thoracic epidural anaesthesia for coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Effects on postoperative complications.  Anaesthesia. 1997;  52 1090-1095
  • 78 CLASP . A randomised trial of low-dose aspirin for the treatment and prevention of pre-eclampsia among 9364 pregnant women.  Lancet. 1994;  343 619-629
  • 79 Sibai B M, Caritis S N, Thom E, Shaw K, McNellis D. and the National Institute of Child health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Network . Low-dose apsirin in nulliparous women: Safety of continuous epidural block and correlation between bleeding time and maternal-neonatal bleeding complications.  Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;  172 1553-1557
  • 80 Baker A S, Ojemann R G, Swartz M N, Richardson E P. Spinal epidural abscess.  N Engl J Med. 1975;  293 463-468
  • 81 Wang L P, Hauerberg J, Schmidt J F. Incidence of spinal epidural abscess after epidural analgesia.  Anesthesiology. 1999;  91 1928-1936
  • 82 Wang L P, Hauerberg J, Schmidt J F. Long-term outcome after neurosurgically treated spinal epidural abscess following epidural analgesia.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2001;  45 233-239
  • 83 Ready L B, Loper K A, Nessly M, Wild L. Postoperative epidural morphine is safe on surgical wards.  Anesthesiology. 1991;  75 452-456
  • 84 Schug S A, Torrie J J. Safety assessment of postoperative pain management by an acute pain service.  Pain. 1993;  55 387-391
  • 85 Goldstein A, Lowney L E, Pal B K. Stereospecific and nonspecific interactions on the morphine congener levorphanol in subcellar fractions of mouse brain.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA. 1971;  58 1742-1747
  • 86 LaMotte C, Pert C B, Snyder S H. Opiate receptor binding in primate spinal cord: distribution and changes after dorsal horn section.  Brain Research. 1976;  112 407-412
  • 87 Yaksh T L, Rudy T A. Analgesia mediated by a direct spinal action of narcotics.  Science. 1976;  192 1357-1358
  • 88 Liu S S, Carpenter R L, Neal J M. Epidural anesthesia and analgesia.  Anesthesiology. 1995;  82 1474-1506
  • 89 deLeon-Casasola O A, Lema M J. Postoperative epidural opioid analgesia: What are the choices?.  Anesth Analg. 1996;  83 867-875
  • 90 McQuay H J, Sullivan A F, Smallman K, Dickenson A H. Intrathecal opioids, potency and lipophilicity.  Pain. 1989;  38 111-115
  • 91 Bromage P R, Camporesi E M, Durant P AC, Nielsen C H. Rostral spread of epidural morphine.  Anesthesiology. 1982;  56 431-436
  • 92 Gourlay G K, Murphy T M, Plummer J L, Kowalski S R, Cherry D A, Cousins M J. Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl in lumbar and cervical CSF following lumbar epidural and intravenous administration.  Pain. 1989;  38 253-259
  • 93 deLeon-Casasola O A, Lema M J. Epidural sufentanil for acute pain control in a patient with extreme opioid dependency.  Anesthesiology. 1992;  76 853-856
  • 94 Coda B A, Brown M C, Schaffer R, Donaldson G, Jacobson R, Hautman B, Shen D D. Pharmacology of epidural fentanyl, alfentanil, and sufentanil in volunteers.  Anesthesiology. 1994;  81 1149-1161
  • 95 Guinard J P, Mavrocordatos P, Chiolero R, Carpenter R L. A randomized comparison of intravenous versus lumbar and thoracic epidural fentanyl for analgesia after thoracotomy.  Anesthesiology. 1992;  77 1108-1115
  • 96 Geller E, Chubrasik J, Graf R, Chubrasik S, Schulte-Mönting J. A randomized double-blind comparison of epidural sufentanil versus intravenous sufentanil or epidural fentanyl analgesia after major abdominal surgery.  Anesth Analg. 1993;  76 1243-1250
  • 97 Miller R R. Analgetics. In Miller RR & Greenblatt DJ (eds) Drug Effects in Hospitalized Patients. New York: Wiley & Sons 1976: 151
  • 98 Blackburn C. Respiratory arrest after epidural sufentanil.  Anaesthesia. 1985;  40 665-666
  • 99 Brockway M S, Noble D W, Sharwood-Smith G H, McClure J H. Profound respiratory depression after extradural fentanyl.  Brit J Anaesth. 1990;  64 243-245
  • 100 Stenseth R, Sellevold O. Epidural morphine for postoperative pain: Experience with 1085 patients.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1985;  29 148-156
  • 101 Cross D A, Hunt J B. Feasibility of epidural morphine for postoperative analgesia in a small community hospital.  Anesth Analg. 1991;  72 765-768
  • 102 Liu S S, Allen H W, Olsson G L. Patient-controlled epidural analgesia with bupivacain and fentanyl on hospital wards: prospective experience with 1,030 surgical patients.  Anesthesiology. 1998;  88 688-695
  • 103 de Leon-Casasola O A, Parker B, Lema M J, Harrison P, Massey J. Postoperative epidural bupivacaine-morphine therapy. Experience with 4227 surgical cancer patients.  Anesthesiology. 1994;  81 368-375
  • 104 Kehlet H, Dahl J B. The value of multi-modal or balanced analgesia on postoperative pain relief.  Anesth Analg. 1993;  77 1048-1056
  • 105 Rygnestadt T, Borchgrevink P C, Eide E. Postoperative epidural infusion of morphine and bupivacaine is safe on surgical wards.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1997;  41 868-876
  • 106 Etches R C, Sandler A N, Daley D M. Respiratory depression and spinal opioids.  Can J Anaesth. 1989;  36 165-185
  • 107 American Society of Anesthesiologists task force on Pain Management, Acute Pain Section . Practice guidelines for acute management in the perioperative setting. A report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists task force on Pain Management, Acute Pain Section.  Anesthesiology . 1995;  82 1071-1081
  • 108 Rawal N, Möllefors K, Axelsson K, Lingardh G, Widman B. An experimental study of urodynamic effects of epidural morphine and of naloxone reversal.  Anesth Analg. 1983;  62 41-647
  • 109 Brown D L, Ransom D M, Hall J A, Leicht C H, Schroeder D R, Offord K P. Regional anesthesia and local anesthetic-induced systemic toxicity: seizure frequency and accompanying cardiovascular changes.  Anesth Analg. 1995;  81 321-328
  • 110 Abouleish E I, Elias M, Nelson C. Ropivacain-induced seizure after extradural anaesthesia.  Br J Anaesth. 1998;  80 843-844
  • 111 Otten P E, Wilson E J. The cardiocirculatory effects of upper thoracic epidural analgesia.  Can Anaesth Soc J. 1966;  13 541-549
  • 112 Moiniche S, Hjortso N C, Blemmer T, Dahl J B, Kehlet B. Blood pressure and heart rate during orthostatic stress and walking with continuous postoperative thoracic epidural bupivacaine/morphine.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1993;  37 65-69
  • 113 Wiebalck A, Brodner G, van Aken H. The effects of adding sufentanil to bupivacaine for postoperative patient-controlled epidural analgesia.  Anesth Analg. 1997;  85 124-129
  • 114 Tryba M, Wedel D J. Central neuroaxial block and low molecular weight heparin (enoxaparine): lessons learned from different dosage regimes in two continents.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand (Suppl.). 1997;  111 100-104
  • 115 Wulf H. Epidural anaesthesia and spinal haematoma.  Can J Anaesth. 1996;  43 1260-1271
  • 116 McLeod G, Davies H, Munnoch N, Bannister J, MacRae W. Postoperative pain relief using thoracic epidural analgesia: outstanding success and disappointing failures.  Anaesthesia. 2001;  56 75-81

Prof. Dr. med. R. Scherer

Zentrale Abteilung für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, Evangelisches und Johanniter Klinikum Duisburg/Dinslaken/Oberhausen

Fahrner Str. 135

47163 Duisburg

    >