Download PDF
Int J Sports Med 2007; 28(9): 773-779
DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-964979
Orthopedics & Biomechanics

© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

The Type and Intensity of Exercise Have Independent and Additive Effects on Bone Mineral Density

F. Magkos1 , M. Yannakoulia1 , S. A. Kavouras1 , L. S. Sidossis1
  • 1Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University, Athens, Greece
Further Information

Publication History

accepted after revision July 21, 2006

Publication Date:
23 April 2007 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Previous research on the effects of running and swimming on areal bone mineral density (aBMD) is inconclusive. This study examined the putative roles of the type and intensity of exercise in this respect, by measuring aBMD (adjusted for age, weight, and height) of the total body and of various subregions in 52 males aged 17 - 30 yr (21 runners, 16 swimmers, 15 controls). The athletes were competing at either long-distance (“endurance”, n = 17) or short-distance (“sprint”, n = 20) events. Compared with controls, runners had significantly higher leg aBMD (+ 6.7 %, p < 0.05), while swimmers had significantly lower leg and total body aBMD (- 9.8 % and - 7.0 %, respectively, p < 0.05). Endurance athletes had significantly lower total body aBMD than controls (- 4.9 %, p < 0.05). Sprint athletes did not differ significantly from controls at any site, but they had significantly higher aBMD than endurance athletes throughout the skeleton (p < 0.05). Compared with controls, endurance swimmers had significantly lower aBMD at the legs and total body (- 14.8 % and - 10.4 %, respectively, p < 0.05), while sprint runners had significantly higher values for the legs, trunk, and total body (+ 8.0 %, + 10.0 %, and + 6.3 %, respectively, p < 0.05). Sprint swimmers and endurance runners did not differ from controls at any site or the total body. These results suggest that the type and intensity of exercise have independent and additive effects on bone density.

Key words

skeleton - swimming - running - endurance - sprint - distance

References

  • 1 Ammann P, Rizzoli R. Bone strength and its determinants.  Osteoporos Int. 2003;  14 (Suppl 3) S13-S18
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Beck B R, Shaw J, Snow C M. Physical activity and osteoporosis. Marcus R, Feldman D, Kelsey J Osteoporosis. 2nd edn. San Diego, CA; Academic Press 2001: 701-720
    Google Scholar
  • 3 Bellew J W, Gehrig L. A comparison of bone mineral density in adolescent female swimmers, soccer players, and weight lifters.  Pediatr Phys Ther. 2006;  18 19-22
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Bennell K L, Malcolm S A, Khan K M, Thomas S A, Reid S J, Brukner P D, Ebeling P R, Wark J D. Bone mass and bone turnover in power athletes, endurance athletes, and controls: a 12-month longitudinal study.  Bone. 1997;  20 477-484
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Bilanin J E, Blanchard M S, Russek-Cohen E. Lower vertebral bone density in male long distance runners.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989;  21 66-70
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Bouxsein M L, Marcus R. Overview of exercise and bone mass.  Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 1994;  20 787-802
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Brahm H, Strom H, Piehl-Aulin K, Mallmin H, Ljunghall S. Bone metabolism in endurance trained athletes: a comparison to population-based controls based on DXA, SXA, quantitative ultrasound, and biochemical markers.  Calcif Tissue Int. 1997;  61 448-454
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Cappozzo A. Force actions in the human trunk during running.  J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1983;  23 14-22
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Carter D R. Mechanical loading history and skeletal biology.  J Biomech. 1987;  20 1095-1109
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Chilibeck P D, Sale D G, Webber C E. Exercise and bone mineral density.  Sports Med. 1995;  19 103-122
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Crossley K, Bennell K L, Wrigley T, Oakes B W. Ground reaction forces, bone characteristics, and tibial stress fracture in male runners.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;  31 1088-1093
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Duncan C S, Blimkie C J, Cowell C T, Burke S T, Briody J N, Howman-Giles R. Bone mineral density in adolescent female athletes: relationship to exercise type and muscle strength.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;  34 286-294
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Duncan R L, Turner C H. Mechanotransduction and the functional response of bone to mechanical strain.  Calcif Tissue Int. 1995;  57 344-358
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Einhorn T A. Bone strength: the bottom line.  Calcif Tissue Int. 1992;  51 333-339
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Frost H M. Why do marathon runners have less bone than weight lifters? A vital-biomechanical view and explanation.  Bone. 1997;  20 183-189
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Giangregorio L, Blimkie C J. Skeletal adaptations to alterations in weight-bearing activity: a comparison of models of disuse osteoporosis.  Sports Med. 2002;  32 459-476
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Groothausen J, Siemer H, Kemper H CG, Twisk J, Welten D C. Influence of peak strain on lumbar bone mineral density: an analysis of 15-year physical activity in young males and females.  Pediatr Exerc Sci. 1997;  9 159-173
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Hetland M L, Haarbo J, Christiansen C. Low bone mass and high bone turnover in male long distance runners.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993;  77 770-775
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Karlsson M K, Magnusson H, Karlsson C, Seeman E. The duration of exercise as a regulator of bone mass.  Bone. 2001;  28 128-132
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Kelley G A, Kelley K S, Tran Z V. Exercise and bone mineral density in men: a meta-analysis.  J Appl Physiol. 2000;  88 1730-1736
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Kemper H C, Twisk J W, van Mechelen W, Post G B, Roos J C, Lips P. A fifteen-year longitudinal study in young adults on the relation of physical activity and fitness with the development of the bone mass: The Amsterdam Growth And Health Longitudinal Study.  Bone. 2000;  27 847-853
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Lanyon L E. Using functional loading to influence bone mass and architecture: objectives, mechanisms, and relationship with estrogen of the mechanically adaptive process in bone.  Bone. 1996;  18 37S-43S
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Layne J E, Nelson M E. The effects of progressive resistance training on bone density: a review.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;  31 25-30
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Leblanc A D, Schneider V S, Evans H J, Engelbretson D A, Krebs J M. Bone mineral loss and recovery after 17 weeks of bed rest.  J Bone Miner Res. 1990;  5 843-850
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Lee E J, Long K A, Risser W L, Poindexter H B, Gibbons W E, Goldzieher J. Variations in bone status of contralateral and regional sites in young athletic women.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;  27 1354-1361
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 MacDougall J D, Webber C E, Martin J, Ormerod S, Chesley A, Younglai E V, Gordon C L, Blimkie C J. Relationship among running mileage, bone density, and serum testosterone in male runners.  J Appl Physiol. 1992;  73 1165-1170
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Mussolino M E, Looker A C, Orwoll E S. Jogging and bone mineral density in men: results from NHANES III.  Am J Public Health. 2001;  91 1056-1059
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Nilsson B E, Westlin N E. Bone density in athletes.  Clin Orthop. 1971;  77 179-182
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Orwoll E S, Ferar J, Oviatt S K, McClung M R, Huntington K. The relationship of swimming exercise to bone mass in men and women.  Arch Intern Med. 1989;  149 2197-2200
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Robinson T L, Snow-Harter C, Taaffe D R, Gillis D, Shaw J, Marcus R. Gymnasts exhibit higher bone mass than runners despite similar prevalence of amenorrhea and oligomenorrhea.  J Bone Miner Res. 1995;  10 26-35
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Smith R, Rutherford O M. Spine and total body bone mineral density and serum testosterone levels in male athletes.  Eur J Appl Physiol. 1993;  67 330-334
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Snow C M, Rosen C J, Robinson T L. Serum IGF‐I is higher in gymnasts than runners and predicts bone and lean mass.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;  32 1902-1907
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Stewart A D, Hannan J. Total and regional bone density in male runners, cyclists, and controls.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;  32 1373-1377
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Suominen H, Rahkila P. Bone mineral density of the calcaneus in 70- to 81-yr-old male athletes and a population sample.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991;  23 1227-1233
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Suominen H. Bone mineral density and long term exercise. An overview of cross-sectional athlete studies.  Sports Med. 1993;  16 316-330
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Taaffe D R, Snow-Harter C, Connolly D A, Robinson T L, Brown M D, Marcus R. Differential effects of swimming versus weight-bearing activity on bone mineral status of eumenorrheic athletes.  J Bone Miner Res. 1995;  10 586-593
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Taaffe D R, Robinson T L, Snow C M, Marcus R. High-impact exercise promotes bone gain in well-trained female athletes.  J Bone Miner Res. 1997;  12 255-260
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Taaffe D R, Marcus R. Regional and total body bone mineral density in elite collegiate male swimmers.  J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1999;  39 154-159
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Winters K M, Adams W C, Meredith C N, Loan M D, Lasley B L. Bone density and cyclic ovarian function in trained runners and active controls.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;  28 776-785
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Wosk J, Voloshin A. Wave attenuation in skeletons of young healthy persons.  J Biomech. 1981;  14 261-267
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar

Prof. PhD Labros S. Sidossis

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics
Harokopio University

70 El. Venizelou Avenue

17671 Athens

Greece

Phone: + 30 21 09 54 91 54

Fax: + 30 21 09 54 91 41

Email: lsidossis@hua.gr

      >