Epilepsy: Workup and Management in Adults

Abstract

When managing epilepsy, there is a temptation to focus care with respect to the last and the next seizure. However, epilepsy is a multifaceted chronic condition and should be treated as such. Epilepsy comes with many physical risks, psychological effects, and socioeconomic ramifications, demanding a long-term commitment from the treating physician. Patients with epilepsy, compared to other chronically ill patient populations, have a worse quality of life, family function, and less social support. The majority of patients are well controlled on antiseizure drugs. However, approximately one-third will continue to have seizures despite optimized medical management. The primary aim of this article is to explore the long-term management of chronic epilepsy, and to address some of the particular needs of patients with chronic epilepsy.

Keywords

epilepsy - medical management - breakthrough seizures - women with epilepsy - older adults

Publikationsverlauf

Artikel online veröffentlicht:
11. November 2020

• References

• 1 Abou-Khalil BW. Update on antiepileptic drugs 2019. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2019; 25 (02) 508-536
• 2 Semah F, Thomas P, Coulbaut S, Derambure P. Early add-on treatment vs alternative monotherapy in patients with partial epilepsy. Epileptic Disord 2014; 16 (02) 165-174
• 3 Margolis JM, Chu BC, Wang ZJ, Copher R, Cavazos JE. Effectiveness of antiepileptic drug combination therapy for partial-onset seizures based on mechanisms of action. JAMA Neurol 2014; 71 (08) 985-993
• 4 Zaccara G, Perucca E. Interactions between antiepileptic drugs, and between antiepileptic drugs and other drugs. Epileptic Disord 2014; 16 (04) 409-431
• 5 Stafstrom CE. Mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs: the search for synergy. Curr Opin Neurol 2010; 23 (02) 157-163
• 6 Poolos NP, Warner LN, Humphreys SZ, Williams S. Comparative efficacy of combination drug therapy in refractory epilepsy. Neurology 2012; 78 (01) 62-68
• 7 Bauer D, Quigg M. Optimizing management of medically responsive epilepsy. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2019; 25 (02) 343-361
• 8 Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT. et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2010; 51 (06) 1069-1077
• 9 Divino V, Petrilla AA, Bollu V, Velez F, Ettinger A, Makin C. Clinical and economic burden of breakthrough seizures. Epilepsy Behav 2015; 51: 40-47
• 10 Bonnett LJ, Powell GA, Tudur Smith C, Marson AG. Breakthrough seizures-further analysis of the Standard versus New Antiepileptic Drugs (SANAD) study. PLoS One 2017; 12 (12) e0190035
• 11 Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M. SANAD Study Group. et al. The SANAD study of effectiveness of carbamazepine, gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, or topiramate for treatment of partial epilepsy: an unblinded randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007; 369 (9566): 1000-1015
• 12 Michaelis R, Tang V, Wagner JL. et al. Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of psychological treatments for people with epilepsy on health-related quality of life. Epilepsia 2018; 59 (02) 315-332
• 13 Patsalos PN, Berry DJ, Bourgeois BF. et al. Antiepileptic drugs--best practice guidelines for therapeutic drug monitoring: a position paper by the subcommission on therapeutic drug monitoring, ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (07) 1239-1276
• 14 Reimers A, Berg JA, Burns ML, Brodtkorb E, Johannessen SI, Johannessen Landmark C. Reference ranges for antiepileptic drugs revisited: a practical approach to establish national guidelines. Drug Des Devel Ther 2018; 12: 271-280
• 15 Kaddumukasa M, Kaddumukasa M, Matovu S, Katabira E. The frequency and precipitating factors for breakthrough seizures among patients with epilepsy in Uganda. BMC Neurol 2013; 13: 182
• 16 Osterberg L, Blaschke T. Adherence to medication. N Engl J Med 2005; 353 (05) 487-497
• 17 Modi AC, Rausch JR, Glauser TA. Patterns of nonadherence to antiepileptic drug therapy in children with newly diagnosed epilepsy. JAMA 2011; 305 (16) 1669-1676
• 18 Modi AC, Ingerski LM, Rausch JR, Glauser TA, Drotar D. White coat adherence over the first year of therapy in pediatric epilepsy. J Pediatr 2012; 161: 695-699.e1
• 19 Cramer JA, Scheyer RD, Mattson RH. Compliance declines between clinic visits. Arch Intern Med 1990; 150 (07) 1509-1510
• 20 Cramer J, Vachon L, Desforges C, Sussman NM. Dose frequency and dose interval compliance with multiple antiepileptic medications during a controlled clinical trial. Epilepsia 1995; 36 (11) 1111-1117
• 21 Ferrari CM, de Sousa RM, Castro LH. Factors associated with treatment non-adherence in patients with epilepsy in Brazil. Seizure 2013; 22 (05) 384-389
• 22 Jacob L, Hamer HM, Kostev K. Adherence to antiepileptic drugs in children and adolescents: a retrospective study in primary care settings in Germany. Epilepsy Behav 2017; 75: 36-41
• 23 Piper K, Richman J, Faught E. et al. Adherence to antiepileptic drugs among diverse older Americans on Part D Medicare. Epilepsy Behav 2017; 66: 68-73
• 24 Wang S, Chen C, Jin B. et al. The association of psychosocial variables with adherence to antiepileptic drugs in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2017; 77: 39-43
• 25 Ettinger AB, Good MB, Manjunath R, Edward Faught R, Bancroft T. The relationship of depression to antiepileptic drug adherence and quality of life in epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2014; 36: 138-143
• 26 Ma M, Peng Q, Gu X. et al. Pharmacist impact on adherence of valproic acid therapy in pediatric patients with epilepsy using active education techniques. Epilepsy Behav 2019; 98 (PtA): 14-18
• 27 da Mota Gomes M, Navarro T, Keepanasseril A, Jeffery R, Haynes RB. Increasing adherence to treatment in epilepsy: what do the strongest trials show?. Acta Neurol Scand 2017; 135 (03) 266-272
• 28 Reimers A, Helde G, Brodtkorb E. Ethinyl estradiol, not progestogens, reduces lamotrigine serum concentrations. Epilepsia 2005; 46 (09) 1414-1417
• 29 Kaiboriboon K, Guevara M, Alldredge BK. Understanding herb and dietary supplement use in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 2009; 50 (08) 1927-1932
• 30 Samuels N, Finkelstein Y, Singer SR, Oberbaum M. Herbal medicine and epilepsy: proconvulsive effects and interactions with antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (03) 373-380
• 31 Tyagi A, Delanty N. Herbal remedies, dietary supplements, and seizures. Epilepsia 2003; 44 (02) 228-235
• 32 Reichert C, Reichert P, Monnet-Tschudi F, Kupferschmidt H, Ceschi A, Rauber-Lüthy C. Seizures after single-agent overdose with pharmaceutical drugs: analysis of cases reported to a poison center. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2014; 52 (06) 629-634
• 33 Cannon JP, Lee TA, Clark NM, Setlak P, Grim SA. The risk of seizures among the carbapenems: a meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69 (08) 2043-2055
• 34 Babahajian A, Khomand P, Manouchehri F. et al. Seizure prevalence and its related factors in tramadol intoxication; a brief report. Arch Acad Emerg Med 2019; 7 (01) e28
• 35 Johannessen Landmark C, Henning O, Johannessen SI. Proconvulsant effects of antidepressants - What is the current evidence?. Epilepsy Behav 2016; 61: 287-291
• 36 Kesselheim AS, Stedman MR, Bubrick EJ. et al. Seizure outcomes following the use of generic versus brand-name antiepileptic drugs: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Drugs 2010; 70 (05) 605-621
• 37 Kesselheim AS, Misono AS, Shrank WH. et al. Variations in pill appearance of antiepileptic drugs and the risk of nonadherence. JAMA Intern Med 2013; 173 (03) 202-208
• 38 Vossler DG, Anderson GD, Bainbridge J. AES position statement on generic substitution of antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsy Curr 2016; 16 (03) 209-211
• 39 Frucht MM, Quigg M, Schwaner C, Fountain NB. Distribution of seizure precipitants among epilepsy syndromes. Epilepsia 2000; 41 (12) 1534-1539
• 40 Wassenaar M, Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenité DG, de Haan GJ, Carpay JA, Leijten FS. Seizure precipitants in a community-based epilepsy cohort. J Neurol 2014; 261 (04) 717-724
• 41 Ferlisi M, Shorvon S. Seizure precipitants (triggering factors) in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2014; 33: 101-105
• 42 Baldin E, Hauser WA, Pack A, Hesdorffer DC. Stress is associated with an increased risk of recurrent seizures in adults. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (06) 1037-1046
• 43 Quigg M, Straume M, Menaker M, Bertram III EH. Temporal distribution of partial seizures: comparison of an animal model with human partial epilepsy. Ann Neurol 1998; 43 (06) 748-755
• 44 Quigg M, Gharai S, Ruland J. et al. Insomnia in epilepsy is associated with continuing seizures and worse quality of life. Epilepsy Res 2016; 122: 91-96
• 45 Quigg M. Circadian rhythms: interactions with seizures and epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2000; 42 (01) 43-55
• 46 Trenité DG. Photosensitivity, visually sensitive seizures and epilepsies. Epilepsy Res 2006; 70 (Suppl. 01) S269-S279
• 47 Kobau R, DiIorio C. Epilepsy self-management: a comparison of self-efficacy and outcome expectancy for medication adherence and lifestyle behaviors among people with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2003; 4 (03) 217-225
• 48 Gordon E, Devinsky O. Alcohol and marijuana: effects on epilepsy and use by patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 2001; 42 (10) 1266-1272
• 49 Hauser WA, Ng SK, Brust JC. Alcohol, seizures, and epilepsy. Epilepsia 1988; 29 (Suppl. 02) S66-S78
• 50 McLaughlin DP, McFarland K. A randomized trial of a group based cognitive behavior therapy program for older adults with epilepsy: the impact on seizure frequency, depression and psychosocial well-being. J Behav Med 2011; 34 (03) 201-207
• 51 Qaseem A, Kansagara D, Forciea MA, Cooke M, Denberg TD. Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians. Management of chronic insomnia disorder in adults: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 2016; 165 (02) 125-133
• 52 Smith D, Defalla BA, Chadwick DW. The misdiagnosis of epilepsy and the management of refractory epilepsy in a specialist clinic. QJM 1999; 92 (01) 15-23
• 53 Werhahn KJ. [Epileptic seizures in the elderly]. Nervenarzt 2009; 80 (04) 399-404
• 54 Hopp JL. Nonepileptic episodic events. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2019; 25 (02) 492-507
• 55 Brigo F, Igwe SC, Ausserer H. et al. Terminology of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia 2015; 56 (03) e21-e25
• 56 Syed TU, LaFrance Jr WC, Kahriman ES. et al. Can semiology predict psychogenic nonepileptic seizures? A prospective study. Ann Neurol 2011; 69 (06) 997-1004
• 57 Erba G, Giussani G, Juersivich A. et al. The semiology of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures revisited: Can video alone predict the diagnosis? Preliminary data from a prospective feasibility study. Epilepsia 2016; 57 (05) 777-785
• 58 Benbadis SR, O'Neill E, Tatum WO, Heriaud L. Outcome of prolonged video-EEG monitoring at a typical referral epilepsy center. Epilepsia 2004; 45 (09) 1150-1153
• 59 LaFrance Jr WC, Baker GA, Duncan R, Goldstein LH, Reuber M. Minimum requirements for the diagnosis of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: a staged approach: a report from the International League Against Epilepsy Nonepileptic Seizures Task Force. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (11) 2005-2018
• 60 Chen DK, So YT, Fisher RS. Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Use of serum prolactin in diagnosing epileptic seizures: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2005; 65 (05) 668-675
• 61 Thompson AW, Hantke N, Phatak V, Chaytor N. The personality assessment inventory as a tool for diagnosing psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia 2010; 51 (01) 161-164
• 62 Asadi-Pooya AA, Tinker J. Delay in diagnosis of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures in adults: a post hoc study. Epilepsy Behav 2017; 75: 143-145
• 63 Robson C, Myers L, Pretorius C, Lian OS, Reuber M. Health related quality of life of people with non-epileptic seizures: the role of socio-demographic characteristics and stigma. Seizure 2018; 55: 93-99
• 64 Begley CE, Famulari M, Annegers JF. et al. The cost of epilepsy in the United States: an estimate from population-based clinical and survey data. Epilepsia 2000; 41 (03) 342-351
• 65 Benbadis SR, Agrawal V, Tatum IV WO. How many patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures also have epilepsy?. Neurology 2001; 57 (05) 915-917
• 66 Friedman JH, LaFrance Jr WC. Psychogenic disorders: the need to speak plainly. Arch Neurol 2010; 67 (06) 753-755
• 67 Carlson P, Nicholson Perry K. Psychological interventions for psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: a meta-analysis. Seizure 2017; 45: 142-150
• 68 Goldstein LH, Mellers JD, Landau S. et al. COgnitive behavioural therapy vs standardised medical care for adults with Dissociative non-Epileptic Seizures (CODES): a multicentre randomised controlled trial protocol. BMC Neurol 2015; 15: 98
• 69 Reuber M, Pukrop R, Bauer J, Helmstaedter C, Tessendorf N, Elger CE. Outcome in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: 1 to 10-year follow-up in 164 patients. Ann Neurol 2003; 53 (03) 305-311
• 70 Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N Engl J Med 2000; 342 (05) 314-319
• 71 French JA, White HS, Klitgaard H. et al. Development of new treatment approaches for epilepsy: unmet needs and opportunities. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (Suppl. 04) 3-12
• 72 Engel Jr J, Wiebe S, French J. Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, American Epilepsy Society, American Association of Neurological Surgeons. et al. Practice parameter: temporal lobe and localized neocortical resections for epilepsy: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, in association with the American Epilepsy Society and the American Association of Neurological Surgeons. Neurology 2003; 60 (04) 538-547
• 73 Ficker DM, So EL, Shen WK. et al. Population-based study of the incidence of sudden unexplained death in epilepsy. Neurology 1998; 51 (05) 1270-1274
• 74 Berg AT, Langfitt J, Shinnar S. et al. How long does it take for partial epilepsy to become intractable?. Neurology 2003; 60 (02) 186-190
• 75 Jetté N, Sander JW, Keezer MR. Surgical treatment for epilepsy: the potential gap between evidence and practice. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15 (09) 982-994
• 76 Hader WJ, Tellez-Zenteno J, Metcalfe A. et al. Complications of epilepsy surgery: a systematic review of focal surgical resections and invasive EEG monitoring. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (05) 840-847
• 77 Sherman EM, Wiebe S, Fay-McClymont TB. et al. Neuropsychological outcomes after epilepsy surgery: systematic review and pooled estimates. Epilepsia 2011; 52 (05) 857-869
• 78 Grewe P, Schulz R, Woermann FG. et al. Very long-term outcome in resected and non-resected patients with temporal lobe epilepsy with medial temporal lobe sclerosis: a multiple case-study. Seizure 2019; 67: 30-37
• 79 Bjellvi J, Olsson I, Malmgren K, Wilbe Ramsay K. Epilepsy duration and seizure outcome in epilepsy surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology 2019; 93 (02) e159-e166
• 80 Rastogi S, Lee C, Salamon N. Neuroimaging in pediatric epilepsy: a multimodality approach. Radiographics 2008; 28 (04) 1079-1095
• 81 Lüders HO, Najm I, Nair D, Widdess-Walsh P, Bingman W. The epileptogenic zone: general principles. Epileptic Disord 2006; 8 (Suppl. 02) S1-S9
• 82 Kwon CS, Ripa V, Al-Awar O, Panov F, Ghatan S, Jetté N. Epilepsy and neuromodulation-randomized controlled trials. Brain Sci 2018; 8 (04) 8
• 83 Englot DJ, Rolston JD, Wright CW, Hassnain KH, Chang EF. Rates and predictors of seizure freedom with vagus nerve stimulation for intractable epilepsy. Neurosurgery 2016; 79 (03) 345-353
• 84 Macrodimitris S, Sherman EM, Forde S. et al. Psychiatric outcomes of epilepsy surgery: a systematic review. Epilepsia 2011; 52 (05) 880-890
• 85 England MJ, Liverman CT, Schultz AM, Strawbridge LM. Epilepsy across the spectrum: promoting health and understanding. A summary of the Institute of Medicine report. Epilepsy Behav 2012; 25 (02) 266-276
• 86 Fiest KM, Dykeman J, Patten SB. et al. Depression in epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology 2013; 80 (06) 590-599
• 87 Scott AJ, Sharpe L, Hunt C, Gandy M. Anxiety and depressive disorders in people with epilepsy: a meta-analysis. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (06) 973-982
• 88 Christensen J, Vestergaard M, Mortensen PB, Sidenius P, Agerbo E. Epilepsy and risk of suicide: a population-based case-control study. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6 (08) 693-698
• 89 Tian N, Cui W, Zack M, Kobau R, Fowler KA, Hesdorffer DC. Suicide among people with epilepsy: a population-based analysis of data from the U.S. National Violent Death Reporting System, 17 states, 2003-2011. Epilepsy Behav 2016; 61: 210-217
• 90 Josephson CB, Lowerison M, Vallerand I. et al. Association of depression and treated depression with epilepsy and seizure outcomes: a multicohort analysis. JAMA Neurol 2017; 74 (05) 533-539
• 91 Barry JJ, Ettinger AB, Friel P. Advisory Group of the Epilepsy Foundation as part of its Mood Disorder. et al. Consensus statement: the evaluation and treatment of people with epilepsy and affective disorders. Epilepsy Behav 2008; 13 (Suppl. 01) S1-S29
• 92 Gill SJ, Lukmanji S, Fiest KM, Patten SB, Wiebe S, Jetté N. Depression screening tools in persons with epilepsy: a systematic review of validated tools. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (05) 695-705
• 93 Stern JM, Labiner DM, Gilliam FG. et al. More effective assessment of adverse effects and comorbidities in epilepsy: results of a Phase II communication study. Epilepsy Behav 2011; 22 (03) 552-556
• 94 Fiest KM, Patten SB, Altura KC. et al. Patterns and frequency of the treatment of depression in persons with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2014; 39: 59-64
• 95 Alper K, Schwartz KA, Kolts RL, Khan A. Seizure incidence in psychopharmacological clinical trials: an analysis of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) summary basis of approval reports. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62 (04) 345-354
• 96 Johnston JA, Lineberry CG, Ascher JA. et al. A 102-center prospective study of seizure in association with bupropion. J Clin Psychiatry 1991; 52 (11) 450-456
• 97 Kerr MP, Mensah S, Besag F. International League of Epilepsy (ILAE) Commission on the Neuropsychiatric Aspects of Epilepsy. et al. International consensus clinical practice statements for the treatment of neuropsychiatric conditions associated with epilepsy. Epilepsia 2011; 52 (11) 2133-2138
• 98 Kanner AM, Kozak AM, Frey M. The use of sertraline in patients with epilepsy: Is it safe?. Epilepsy Behav 2000; 1 (02) 100-105
• 99 Kühn KU, Quednow BB, Thiel M, Falkai P, Maier W, Elger CE. Antidepressive treatment in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and major depression: a prospective study with three different antidepressants. Epilepsy Behav 2003; 4 (06) 674-679
• 100 Hovorka J, Herman E, Nemcová I. Treatment of interictal depression with citalopram in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2000; 1 (06) 444-447
• 101 Noe K. Counseling and management of the risks of living with epilepsy. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2019; 25 (02) 477-491
• 102 Andersohn F, Schade R, Willich SN, Garbe E. Use of antiepileptic drugs in epilepsy and the risk of self-harm or suicidal behavior. Neurology 2010; 75 (04) 335-340
• 103 Gilliam F, Kuzniecky R, Faught E, Black L, Carpenter G, Schrodt R. Patient-validated content of epilepsy-specific quality-of-life measurement. Epilepsia 1997; 38 (02) 233-236
• 104 Kwon C, Liu M, Quan H, Thoo V, Wiebe S, Jetté N. Motor vehicle accidents, suicides, and assaults in epilepsy: a population-based study. Neurology 2011; 76 (09) 801-806
• 105 Ma BB, Bloch J, Krumholz A. et al. Regulating drivers with epilepsy in Maryland: results of the application of a United States consensus guideline. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (08) 1389-1397
• 106 Sauber-Schatz EK, Ederer DJ, Dellinger AM, Baldwin GT. Vital signs: motor vehicle injury prevention - United States and 19 comparison countries. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2016; 65 (26) 672-677
• 107 Krumholz A, Hopp JL, Sanchez AM. Counseling epilepsy patients on driving and employment. Neurol Clin 2016; 34 (02) 427-442 , ix
• 108 Drazkowski JF, Fisher RS, Sirven JI. et al. Seizure-related motor vehicle crashes in Arizona before and after reducing the driving restriction from 12 to 3 months. Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78 (07) 819-825
• 109 Bacon D, Fisher RS, Morris JC, Rizzo M, Spanaki MV. American Academy of Neurology position statement on physician reporting of medical conditions that may affect driving competence. Neurology 2007; 68 (15) 1174-1177
• 110 Drazkowski JF, Neiman ES, Sirven JI, McAbee GN, Noe KH. Frequency of physician counseling and attitudes toward driving motor vehicles in people with epilepsy: comparing a mandatory-reporting with a voluntary-reporting state. Epilepsy Behav 2010; 19 (01) 52-54
• 111 Shareef YS, McKinnon JH, Gauthier SM, Noe KH, Sirven JI, Drazkowski JF. Counseling for driving restrictions in epilepsy and other causes of temporary impairment of consciousness: how are we doing?. Epilepsy Behav 2009; 14 (03) 550-552
• 112 Beghi E, Cornaggia C. RESt-1 Group. Morbidity and accidents in patients with epilepsy: results of a European cohort study. Epilepsia 2002; 43 (09) 1076-1083
• 113 Camfield C, Camfield P. Injuries from seizures are a serious, persistent problem in childhood onset epilepsy: a population-based study. Seizure 2015; 27: 80-83
• 114 Souverein PC, Webb DJ, Petri H, Weil J, Van Staa TP, Egberts T. Incidence of fractures among epilepsy patients: a population-based retrospective cohort study in the General Practice Research Database. Epilepsia 2005; 46 (02) 304-310
• 115 Souverein PC, Webb DJ, Weil JG, Van Staa TP, Egberts AC. Use of antiepileptic drugs and risk of fractures: case-control study among patients with epilepsy. Neurology 2006; 66 (09) 1318-1324
• 116 Shiek Ahmad B, Hill KD, O'Brien TJ, Gorelik A, Habib N, Wark JD. Falls and fractures in patients chronically treated with antiepileptic drugs. Neurology 2012; 79 (02) 145-151
• 117 Nicholas JM, Ridsdale L, Richardson MP, Grieve AP, Gulliford MC. Fracture risk with use of liver enzyme inducing antiepileptic drugs in people with active epilepsy: cohort study using the general practice research database. Seizure 2013; 22 (01) 37-42
• 118 Teagarden DL, Meador KJ, Loring DW. Low vitamin D levels are common in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2014; 108 (08) 1352-1356
• 119 Faught E, Duh MS, Weiner JR, Guérin A, Cunnington MC. Nonadherence to antiepileptic drugs and increased mortality: findings from the RANSOM Study. Neurology 2008; 71 (20) 1572-1578
• 120 Nickels KC, Grossardt BR, Wirrell EC. Epilepsy-related mortality is low in children: a 30-year population-based study in Olmsted County, MN. Epilepsia 2012; 53 (12) 2164-2171
• 121 Tomson T, Beghi E, Sundqvist A, Johannessen SI. Medical risks in epilepsy: a review with focus on physical injuries, mortality, traffic accidents and their prevention. Epilepsy Res 2004; 60 (01) 1-16
• 122 Harden C, Tomson T, Gloss D. et al. Practice guideline summary: sudden unexpected death in epilepsy incidence rates and risk factors: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Neurology 2017; 88 (17) 1674-1680
• 123 Hesdorffer DC, Tomson T, Benn E. ILAE Commission on Epidemiology; Subcommission on Mortality. et al. Combined analysis of risk factors for SUDEP. Epilepsia 2011; 52 (06) 1150-1159
• 124 Waddell B, McColl K, Turner C. et al. Are we discussing SUDEP?--A retrospective case note analysis. Seizure 2013; 22 (01) 74-76
• 125 Miller WR, Young N, Friedman D, Buelow JM, Devinsky O. Discussing sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) with patients: practices of health-care providers. Epilepsy Behav 2014; 32: 38-41
• 126 Louik J, Doumlele K, Hussain F. et al. Experiences with premorbid SUDEP discussion among participants in the North American SUDEP Registry (NASR). Epilepsy Behav 2017; 70 (PtA): 131-134
• 127 Ngugi AK, Kariuki SM, Bottomley C, Kleinschmidt I, Sander JW, Newton CR. Incidence of epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology 2011; 77 (10) 1005-1012
• 128 Vélez-Ruiz NJ, Pennell PB. Issues for women with epilepsy. Neurol Clin 2016; 34 (02) 411-425 , ix
• 129 Reddy DS, Kim HY, Rogawski MA. Neurosteroid withdrawal model of perimenstrual catamenial epilepsy. Epilepsia 2001; 42 (03) 328-336
• 130 Herzog AG, Fowler KM, Smithson SD. Progesterone Trial Study Group. et al. Progesterone vs placebo therapy for women with epilepsy: a randomized clinical trial. Neurology 2012; 78 (24) 1959-1966
• 131 Brodie MJ, Mintzer S, Pack AM, Gidal BE, Vecht CJ, Schmidt D. Enzyme induction with antiepileptic drugs: cause for concern?. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (01) 11-27
• 132 Svalheim S, Sveberg L, Mochol M, Taubøll E. Interactions between antiepileptic drugs and hormones. Seizure 2015; 28: 12-17
• 133 Chen LW, Chen MY, Chen KY, Lin HS, Chien CC, Yin HL. Topiramate-associated sexual dysfunction: a systematic review. Epilepsy Behav 2017; 73: 10-17
• 134 Lin CY, Burri A, Fridlund B, Pakpour AH. Female sexual function mediates the effects of medication adherence on quality of life in people with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2017; 67: 60-65
• 135 Verrotti A, Mencaroni E, Cofini M. et al. Valproic acid metabolism and its consequences on sexual functions. Curr Drug Metab 2016; 17 (06) 573-581
• 136 McGrath A, Sharpe L, Lah S, Parratt K. Pregnancy-related knowledge and information needs of women with epilepsy: a systematic review. Epilepsy Behav 2014; 31: 246-255
• 137 Tomson T, Xue H, Battino D. Major congenital malformations in children of women with epilepsy. Seizure 2015; 28: 46-50
• 138 Bjørk M, Riedel B, Spigset O. et al. Association of folic acid supplementation during pregnancy with the risk of autistic traits in children exposed to antiepileptic drugs in utero. JAMA Neurol 2018; 75 (02) 160-168
• 139 Meador KJ, Baker GA, Browning N. NEAD Study Group. et al. Fetal antiepileptic drug exposure and cognitive outcomes at age 6 years (NEAD study): a prospective observational study. Lancet Neurol 2013; 12 (03) 244-252
• 140 Stephen LJ, Harden C, Tomson T, Brodie MJ. Management of epilepsy in women. Lancet Neurol 2019; 18 (05) 481-491
• 141 Battino D, Tomson T, Bonizzoni E. EURAP Study Group. et al. Seizure control and treatment changes in pregnancy: observations from the EURAP epilepsy pregnancy registry. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (09) 1621-1627
• 142 MacDonald SC, Bateman BT, McElrath TF, Hernández-Díaz S. Mortality and morbidity during delivery hospitalization among pregnant women with epilepsy in the United States. JAMA Neurol 2015; 72 (09) 981-988
• 143 The Epilepsies: The Diagnosis and Management of the Epilepsies in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care: Pharmacological Update of Clinical Guideline 20. London: 2012
• 144 Danielsson KC, Borthen I, Morken NH, Gilhus NE. Hypertensive pregnancy complications in women with epilepsy and antiepileptic drugs: a population-based cohort study of first pregnancies in Norway. BMJ Open 2018; 8 (04) e020998
• 145 Hernández-Díaz S, McElrath TF, Pennell PB, Hauser WA, Yerby M, Holmes LB. North American Antiepileptic Drug Pregnancy Registry. Fetal growth and premature delivery in pregnant women on antiepileptic drugs. Ann Neurol 2017; 82 (03) 457-465
• 146 Tomson T, Landmark CJ, Battino D. Antiepileptic drug treatment in pregnancy: changes in drug disposition and their clinical implications. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (03) 405-414
• 147 Voinescu PE, Park S, Chen LQ. et al. Antiepileptic drug clearances during pregnancy and clinical implications for women with epilepsy. Neurology 2018; 91 (13) e1228-e1236
• 148 Reimers A, Helde G, Becser Andersen N. et al. Zonisamide serum concentrations during pregnancy. Epilepsy Res 2018; 144: 25-29
• 149 Hernández-Díaz S, Smith CR, Shen A. North American AED Pregnancy Registry, North American AED Pregnancy Registry. et al. Comparative safety of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy. Neurology 2012; 78 (21) 1692-1699
• 150 Campbell E, Kennedy F, Russell A. et al. Malformation risks of antiepileptic drug monotherapies in pregnancy: updated results from the UK and Ireland Epilepsy and Pregnancy Registers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014; 85 (09) 1029-1034
• 151 Tomson T, Battino D, Bonizzoni E. EURAP Study Group. et al. Comparative risk of major congenital malformations with eight different antiepileptic drugs: a prospective cohort study of the EURAP registry. Lancet Neurol 2018; 17 (06) 530-538
• 152 Baker GA, Bromley RL, Briggs M. Liverpool and Manchester Neurodevelopment Group. et al. IQ at 6 years after in utero exposure to antiepileptic drugs: a controlled cohort study. Neurology 2015; 84 (04) 382-390
• 153 Richards N, Reith D, Stitely M, Smith A. Are doses of lamotrigine or levetiracetam adjusted during pregnancy?. Epilepsia Open 2017; 3 (01) 86-90
• 154 Meador KJ, Baker GA, Browning N. Neurodevelopmental Effects of Antiepileptic Drugs (NEAD) Study Group. et al. Breastfeeding in children of women taking antiepileptic drugs: cognitive outcomes at age 6 years. JAMA Pediatr 2014; 168 (08) 729-736
• 155 Veiby G, Bjørk M, Engelsen BA, Gilhus NE. Epilepsy and recommendations for breastfeeding. Seizure 2015; 28: 57-65
• 156 Veiby G, Engelsen BA, Gilhus NE. Early child development and exposure to antiepileptic drugs prenatally and through breastfeeding: a prospective cohort study on children of women with epilepsy. JAMA Neurol 2013; 70 (11) 1367-1374
• 157 Koppel BS, Harden CL. Gender issues in the neurobiology of epilepsy: a clinical perspective. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 72 (Pt B): 193-197
• 158 Hauser WA, Annegers JF, Kurland LT. Incidence of epilepsy and unprovoked seizures in Rochester, Minnesota: 1935-1984. Epilepsia 1993; 34 (03) 453-468
• 159 Ghosh S, Jehi LE. New-onset epilepsy in the elderly: challenges for the internist. Cleve Clin J Med 2014; 81 (08) 490-498
• 160 Sander JW, Hart YM, Johnson AL, Shorvon SD. National general practice study of epilepsy: newly diagnosed epileptic seizures in a general population. Lancet 1990; 336 (8726): 1267-1271
• 161 Brodie MJ, Elder AT, Kwan P. Epilepsy in later life. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8 (11) 1019-1030
• 162 Ramsay RE, Rowan AJ, Pryor FM. Special considerations in treating the elderly patient with epilepsy. Neurology 2004; 62 (05) (Suppl. 02) S24-S29
• 163 Silveira DC, Jehi L, Chapin J. et al. Seizure semiology and aging. Epilepsy Behav 2011; 20 (02) 375-377
• 164 Oono M, Uno H, Umesaki A, Nagatsuka K, Kinoshita M, Naritomi H. Severe and prolonged ictal paresis in an elderly patient. Epilepsy Behav Case Rep 2014; 2: 105-107
• 165 Werhahn KJ. Epilepsy in the elderly. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2009; 106 (09) 135-142
• 166 Smith SJ. EEG in the diagnosis, classification, and management of patients with epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005; 76 (Suppl. 02) ii2-ii7
• 167 Watson P, Conroy A, Moran G, Duncan S. Retrospective study of sensitivity and specificity of EEG in the elderly compared with younger age groups. Epilepsy Behav 2012; 25 (03) 408-411
• 168 Chochoi M, Tyvaert L, Derambure P, Szurhaj W. Is long-term electroencephalogram more appropriate than standard electroencephalogram in the elderly?. Clin Neurophysiol 2017; 128 (01) 270-274
• 169 McBride AE, Shih TT, Hirsch LJ. Video-EEG monitoring in the elderly: a review of 94 patients. Epilepsia 2002; 43 (02) 165-169
• 170 Lam AD, Deck G, Goldman A, Eskandar EN, Noebels J, Cole AJ. Silent hippocampal seizures and spikes identified by foramen ovale electrodes in Alzheimer's disease. Nat Med 2017; 23 (06) 678-680
• 171 Sheth SA, Aronson JP, Shafi MM. et al. Utility of foramen ovale electrodes in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2014; 55 (05) 713-724
• 172 Cheng JY, French JA. Intelligent use of antiepileptic drugs is beneficial to patients. Curr Opin Neurol 2018; 31 (02) 169-175
• 173 Perucca E, Berlowitz D, Birnbaum A. et al. Pharmacological and clinical aspects of antiepileptic drug use in the elderly. Epilepsy Res 2006; 68 (Suppl. 01) S49-S63
• 174 Poza JJ. Management of epilepsy in the elderly. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2007; 3 (06) 723-728
• 175 O'Dwyer R, Byrne R, Lynn F. et al. Age is but a number when considering epilepsy surgery in older adults. Epilepsy Behav 2019; 91: 9-12