Monitoring the Breath-Hold Training Load during an Ecological Session: A Pilot Study

Abstract

This study aimed to create a training load index to measure physiological stress during breath-hold (BH) training and examine its relationship with memory performance. Eighteen well-trained BH divers (Age: 35.8±6.6 years, BH training practice: 5.3±4.5 years) participated in this study. During a standard 1.5-hour BH training in the pool, perceived exertion, heart rate, distance, and duration were measured. The training load index was modelled on the basis of a TRIMP (TRaining IMPulse) with four different equations and was used to measure the stress induced by this BH training. A reference value, based on the ratio between the average heart rate during all BHs and the lowest heart rate during BH training, was used for comparing training load index. Memory assessment was conducted both before and after this training. Of the four equations proposed, equation no. 4, named aTRIMP for “apnoea,” showed the strongest correlation with our reference value (r=0.652, p<0.01). No difference was found between any of the memory tests before and after the BH training. The aTRIMP was a new representative index for monitoring habitual training of well-trained BH divers. Furthermore, this training had no negative impact on memory performance.

Keywords

apnea performance - freediving - cognition

Publikationsverlauf

Eingereicht: 20. Dezember 2023

Angenommen: 26. April 2024

Artikel online veröffentlicht:
15. Juli 2024

• References

• 1 Elia A, Gennser M, Harlow PS. et al. Physiology, pathophysiology and (mal)adaptations to chronic apnoeic training: a state-of-the-art review. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121: 1543-1566
• 2 Costalat G, Coquart J, Castres I. et al. The oxygen-conserving potential of the diving response: A kinetic-based analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences 2017; 35: 678-687
• 3 Halson SL. Monitoring Training Load to Understand Fatigue in Athletes. Sports Med 2014; 44: 139-147
• 4 Impellizzeri FM, Marcora SM, Coutts AJ. Internal and External Training Load: 15 Years On. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 2019; 14: 270-273
• 5 Impellizzeri FM, Shrier I, McLaren SJ. et al. Understanding Training Load as Exposure and Dose. Sports Med 2023; 53: 1667-1679
• 6 Calvert TW, Banister EW, Savage MV. et al. A Systems Model of the Effects of Training on Physical Performance. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 1976; SMC-6: 94-102
• 7 Edwards S. Heart Rate Monitor Book. First Edition. Port Washington, N.Y.: Sacramento, CA: Polar CIC Inc.,US; 1993
• 8 Mulder E, Sieber A, Schagatay E. Using Underwater Pulse Oximetry in Freediving to Extreme Depths to Study Risk of Hypoxic Blackout and Diving Response Phases. Frontiers in Physiology 2021; 12: 651128
• 9 Willie CK, Ainslie PN, Drvis I. et al. Regulation of brain blood flow and oxygen delivery in elite breath-hold divers. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2015; 35: 66-73
• 10 Kjeld T, Jattu T, Nielsen HB. et al. Release of erythropoietin and neuron-specific enolase after breath holding in competing free divers. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 2015; 25: e253-e257
• 11 Gren M, Shahim P, Lautner R. et al. Blood biomarkers indicate mild neuroaxonal injury and increased amyloid β production after transient hypoxia during breath-hold diving. Brain Injury 2016; 30: 1226-1230
• 12 Billaut F, Gueit P, Faure S. et al. Do elite breath-hold divers suffer from mild short-term memory impairments?. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2018; 43: 247-251
• 13 Ridgway L, McFarland K. Apnea Diving: Long-Term Neurocognitive Sequelae of Repeated Hypoxemia. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2006; 20: 160-176
• 14 Rodríguez-Zamora L, Iglesias X, Barrero A. et al. Perceived exertion, time of immersion and physiological correlates in synchronized swimming. Int J Sports Med 2014; 35: 403-411
• 15 Guimard A, Joulia F, Prieur F. et al. Exponential Relationship Between Maximal Apnea Duration and Exercise Intensity in Non-apnea Trained Individuals. Frontiers in Physiology 2022; 12: 815824
• 16 Foster C, Florhaug JA, Franklin J. et al. A new approach to monitoring exercise training. J Strength Cond Res 2001; 15: 109-115
• 17 Gellish RL, Goslin BR, Olson RE. et al. Longitudinal modeling of the relationship between age and maximal heart rate. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39: 822-829
• 18 St-Hilaire A, Hudon C, Vallet GT. et al. Normative data for phonemic and semantic verbal fluency test in the adult French-Quebec population and validation study in Alzheimer’s disease and depression. Clin Neuropsychol 2016; 30: 1126-1150
• 19 Bouyeure A, Patil S, Mauconduit F. et al. Hippocampal subfield volumes and memory discrimination in the developing brain. Hippocampus 2021; 31: 1202-1214
• 20 Stark SM, Kirwan CB, Stark CEL. Mnemonic Similarity Task: A Tool for Assessing Hippocampal Integrity. Trends Cogn Sci 2019; 23: 938-951
• 21 Andersson JPA, Linér MH, Rünow E. et al. Diving response and arterial oxygen saturation during apnea and exercise in breath-hold divers. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2002; 93: 882-886
• 22 Mujika I. Quantification of Training and Competition Loads in Endurance Sports: Methods and Applications. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 2017; 12: S2-S17
• 23 Lemaître F, Buchheit M, Joulia F. et al. Static Apnea Effect on Heart Rate and Its Variability in Elite Breath-Hold Divers. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 2008; 79: 99-104
• 24 Bouten J, Debusschere J, Lootens L. et al. Six weeks of static apnea training does not affect Hbmass and exercise performance. Journal of Applied Physiology 2022; 132: 673-681
• 25 Seiler S. What is Best Practice for Training Intensity and Duration Distribution in Endurance Athletes?. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 2010; 5: 276-291
• 26 AKIScedil T, Alkan N. Predictors of Competitive Dynamic Apnea Performance in Elite Free Diving Athletes. Cases 2023; 2: 1-10
• 27 Loprinzi PD, Matalgah A, Crawford L. et al. Effects of Acute Normobaric Hypoxia on Memory Interference. Brain Sciences 2019; 9: 323
• 28 Chang YK, Labban JD, Gapin JI. et al. The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis. Brain Research 2012; 1453: 87-101
• 29 Ando S, Komiyama T, Sudo M. et al. The interactive effects of acute exercise and hypoxia on cognitive performance: A narrative review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 2020; 30: 384-398
• 30 Bourdon PC, Cardinale M, Murray A. et al. Monitoring Athlete Training Loads: Consensus Statement. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 2017; 12: S2-170