Strength as a Predictor of Aerobic Power in Competitive Cyclists: National Team Insights

Abstract

Maximal aerobic power and time-to-exhaustion at maximal aerobic power are critical for cycling performance, yet the role of maximal lower-body strength in enhancing these metrics across sex, category, and discipline in cyclists remains underexplored. This study investigated the relationships between 1RM, maximal aerobic power, and time-to-exhaustion at maximal aerobic power in 69 high-level and professional cyclists from the same national team, stratified by sex, category, and discipline. Cyclists underwent a 2-day protocol to assess maximal aerobic power via a graded exercise test, time-to-exhaustion at maximal aerobic power, and 1RM via a velocity-based parallel back squat test. Spearman correlations, mixed models, generalized additive models, structural equation modeling, and cluster analysis examined strength–performance relationships, adjusted for covariates. 1RM strongly predicted maximal aerobic power (r=0.73, β=0.86, p<0.001; 2.47 W increase per kg) and relative 1RM predicted maximal aerobic power relative to body mass nonlinearly (r=0.58, β=0.84, p<0.001). Time-to-exhaustion showed no significant strength association (p>0.05). Women exhibited lower maximal aerobic power (−71.67 W, p<0.001), mountain bike cyclists showed longer time-to-exhaustion (+0.61 standard deviation, p=0.049), and elite cyclists had higher maximal aerobic power (+21.51 W, p=0.030), reflecting physiological and discipline-specific differences. Clusters highlighted strength-power distinctions. These findings demonstrate that maximal strength is associated with maximal aerobic power but not time-to-exhaustion, with associations varying according to sex, discipline, and category.

Keywords

time-to-exhaustion - muscle strength - cycling - endurance - aerobic power - national team

Publication History

Received: 10 June 2025

Accepted after revision: 15 September 2025

Accepted Manuscript online:
16 September 2025

Article published online:
13 November 2025

• References

• 1 Hill AV. The Physiological Basis of Athletic Records. The Scientific Monthly 1925; 21: 409-428
• 2 Seiler S. What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes?. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2010; 5: 276-291
• 3 Pinot J, Grappe F. Determination of Maximal Aerobic Power from the Record Power Profile to improve cycling training. Journal of Science and Cycling 2014; 3: 26-32
• 4 Billat LV, Koralsztein JP. Significance of the velocity at VO_2max and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports Med 1996; 22: 90-108
• 5 Faina M, Billat V, Squadrone R. et al. Anaerobic contribution to the time to exhaustion at the minimal exercise intensity at which maximal oxygen uptake occurs in elite cyclists, kayakists and swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997; 76: 13-20
• 6 Laursen PB, Shing CM, Jenkins DG. Reproducibility of the cycling time to exhaustion at VO2peak in highly trained cyclists. Can J Appl Physiol 2003; 28: 605-615
• 7 Aagaard P, Andersen JL, Bennekou M. et al. Effects of resistance training on endurance capacity and muscle fiber composition in young top-level cyclists. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2011; 21: e298-e307
• 8 Lauersen JB, Bertelsen DM, Andersen LB. The effectiveness of exercise interventions to prevent sports injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Sports Med 2014; 48: 871-877
• 9 Rønnestad BR, Hansen EA, Raastad T. Effect of heavy strength training on thigh muscle cross-sectional area, performance determinants, and performance in well-trained cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 108: 965-975
• 10 Rønnestad BR, Hansen J, Nygaard H. 10 weeks of heavy strength training improves performance-related measurements in elite cyclists. J Sports Sci 2017; 35: 1435-1441
• 11 Rønnestad BR, Hansen J, Hollan I. et al. Impairment of Performance Variables After In-Season Strength-Training Cessation in Elite Cyclists. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 2016; 11: 727-735
• 12 Vikestad V, Lyngstad IK, Dalen T. Strength training among professional UCI road cyclists: Practices, challenges, and rationales. PLoS One 2025; 20: e0328195
• 13 Østerås H, Helgerud J, Hoff J. Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 88: 255-263
• 14 Tesch PA, Larsson L. Muscle hypertrophy in bodybuilders. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1982; 49: 301-306
• 15 Bastiaans JJ, van Diemen AB, Veneberg T. et al. The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 86: 79-84
• 16 Jeukendrup AE, Craig NP, Hawley JA. The Bioenergetics of World Class Cycling. J Sci Med Sport 2000; 3: 414-433
• 17 Rønnestad BR, Hansen J, Hollan I. et al. Strength training improves performance and pedaling characteristics in elite cyclists. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2015; 25: e89-98
• 18 Alejo LB, Montalvo-Pérez A, Valenzuela PL. et al. Comparative analysis of endurance, strength and body composition indicators in professional, under-23 and junior cyclists. Front Physiol 2022; 13: 945552
• 19 Vikmoen O, Ellefsen S, Trøen Ø. et al. Strength training improves cycling performance, fractional utilization of VO_2max and cycling economy in female cyclists. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2016; 26: 384-396
• 20 Rønnestad BR, Mujika I. Optimizing strength training for running and cycling endurance performance: A review. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014; 24: 603-612
• 21 Almåsbakk B, Hoff J. Coordination, the determinant of velocity specificity?. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1996; 81: 2046-2052
• 22 Hoff J, Gran A, Helgerud J. Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2002; 12: 288-295
• 23 Støren O, Helgerud J, Støa EM. et al. Maximal strength training improves running economy in distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40: 1087-1092
• 24 Impellizzeri FM, Marcora SM, Rampinini E. et al. Correlations between physiological variables and performance in high level cross country off road cyclists. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2005; 39: 747-751
• 25 Gil-Cabrera J, Valenzuela PL, Alejo LB. et al. Traditional Versus Optimum Power Load Training in Professional Cyclists: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16: 496-503
• 26 Lillo-Bevia JR, Pallarés JG. Validity and reliability of the Cycleops Hammer cycle ergometer. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2018; 13: 853-859
• 27 Pérez-Castilla A, Piepoli A, Delgado-García G. et al. Reliability and Concurrent Validity of Seven Commercially Available Devices for the Assessment of Movement Velocity at Different Intensities During the Bench Press. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 33: 1258-1265
• 28 Pallarés JG, Morán-Navarro R, Ortega JF. et al. Validity and reliability of ventilatory and blood lactate thresholds in well-trained cyclists. PLoS One 2016; 11: e0163389
• 29 Pallarés JG, Lillo-Bevia JR, Morán-Navarro R. et al. Time to exhaustion during cycling is not well predicted by critical power calculations. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 45: 753-760
• 30 Salas-Montoro J-A, Mateo-March M, Sánchez-Muñoz C. et al. Determination of second lactate threshold using near-infrared spectroscopy in elite cyclists. Int J Sports Med 2022; 43: 721-728
• 31 Martínez-Cava A, Morán-Navarro R, Sánchez-Medina L. et al. Velocity- and power-load relationships in the half, parallel and full back squat. J Sports Sci 2019; 37: 1088-1096
• 32 Sanchez-Medina L, Perez CE, Gonzalez-Badillo JJ. Importance of the propulsive phase in strength assessment. Int J Sports Med 2010; 31: 123-129
• 33 Pallarés JG, Sánchez-Medina L, Pérez CE. et al. Imposing a pause between the eccentric and concentric phases increases the reliability of isoinertial strength assessments. J Sports Sci 2014; 32: 1165-1175
• 34 Cesanelli L, Ammar A, Arede J. et al. Performance indicators and functional adaptive windows in competitive cyclists: effect of one-year strength and conditioning training programme. Biol Sport 2022; 39: 329-340
• 35 Paavolainen L, Häkkinen K, Hämäläinen I. et al. Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1999; 86: 1527-1533