PDF herunterladen
Semin Respir Crit Care Med
DOI: 10.1055/a-2716-1746
Review Article

Malignancies Presenting with Alveolar Infiltrates: Diagnostic Pitfalls, Radiologic Clues, and Clinical Patterns

Authors

  • Akshay Mathavan

    1   Department of Internal Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States

  • Akash Mathavan

    1   Department of Internal Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States

  • Olga R. G. Rojas

    2   Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States

  • Ali Ataya

    2   Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States
Weitere Informationen
   Lizenzen und Reprints
Preview

Abstract

Alveolar infiltrates are a common but nonspecific radiologic finding that can obscure the diagnosis of underlying malignancy. While infections and inflammatory processes are typical considerations, a subset of cancers, both primary and secondary, can present with alveolar opacities that mimic these benign conditions. This review synthesizes the spectrum of neoplastic diseases that manifest with an alveolar radiographic pattern, focusing on both primary pulmonary malignancies (such as lepidic-predominant adenocarcinoma, invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma, and pulmonary lymphoma) and select metastatic solid tumors (notably renal cell carcinoma, gastrointestinal cancers, melanoma, and breast cancer) that exhibit a nondestructive, airspace-filling growth. We also describe secondary and paraneoplastic processes, including immune-mediated pneumonitis, eosinophilic pneumonia, leukemic pulmonary hemorrhage, diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, and secondary alveolar proteinosis, that can similarly produce alveolar opacities in the setting of malignancy. Each entity is discussed with emphasis on its clinical presentation, diagnostic approach, imaging features, and distinguishing characteristics. Radiographic findings and other diagnostics are integrated to highlight the importance of early recognition and appropriate investigation. Distinguishing malignant from infectious or inflammatory causes of alveolar disease remains challenging but critical, as misdiagnosis can lead to inappropriate treatment or delays in therapy. Summary tables are provided to support practical clinical differentiation and management. By improving recognition of neoplastic causes of alveolar infiltrates, clinicians may better tailor diagnostic workups and initiate appropriate treatment strategies.

Keywords

alveolar infiltrates - alveolar-pattern lung involvement in cancer - malignancy-associated lung disease - pulmonary complications of malignancy

Contributors' Statement

Akshay M. was the primary author who synthesized relevant information and drafted the manuscript. All other authors assisted in drafting portions of the text and provided critical revision. A.A. is responsible for the final version of the manuscript.




Publikationsverlauf

Eingereicht: 15. Juli 2025

Angenommen: 02. Oktober 2025

Accepted Manuscript online:
06. Oktober 2025

Artikel online veröffentlicht:
17. Oktober 2025

© 2025. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Ost DE, Jim Yeung S-C, Tanoue LT, Gould MK. Clinical and organizational factors in the initial evaluation of patients with lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2013; 143 (5 suppl): e121S-e141S
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 2 Snoeckx A, Dendooven A, Carp L. et al. Wolf in sheep's clothing: primary lung cancer mimicking benign entities. Lung Cancer 2017; 112: 109-117
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 3 Wingard JR, Hiemenz JW, Jantz MA. How I manage pulmonary nodular lesions and nodular infiltrates in patients with hematologic malignancies or undergoing hematopoietic cell transplantation. Blood 2012; 120 (09) 1791-1800
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 4 Yao D, Zhang L, Wu PL. et al. Clinical and misdiagnosed analysis of primary pulmonary lymphoma: a retrospective study. BMC Cancer 2018; 18 (01) 281
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 5 Zhang S, Yu X, Huang Y. et al. Pneumonic-type invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma and infectious pneumonia: clinical and CT imaging analysis from multiple centers. BMC Pulm Med 2022; 22 (01) 460
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 6 Singh H, Hirani K, Kadiyala H. et al. Characteristics and predictors of missed opportunities in lung cancer diagnosis: an electronic health record-based study. J Clin Oncol 2010; 28 (20) 3307-3315
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 7 Yoo H, Suh GY, Jeong B-H. et al. Etiologies, diagnostic strategies, and outcomes of diffuse pulmonary infiltrates causing acute respiratory failure in cancer patients: a retrospective observational study. Crit Care 2013; 17 (04) R150
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 8 Schwartz AM, Rezaei MK. Diagnostic surgical pathology in lung cancer: Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2013; 143 (05) e251S-e262S
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 9 Travis WD, Brambilla E, Noguchi M. et al. Diagnosis of lung adenocarcinoma in resected specimens: implications of the 2011 International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer/American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society classification. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2013; 137 (05) 685-705
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 10 Travis WD, Brambilla E, Noguchi M. et al. International association for the study of lung cancer/American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society international multidisciplinary classification of lung adenocarcinoma. J Thorac Oncol 2011; 6 (02) 244-285
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 11 Kadota K, Villena-Vargas J, Yoshizawa A. et al. Prognostic significance of adenocarcinoma in situ, minimally invasive adenocarcinoma, and nonmucinous lepidic predominant invasive adenocarcinoma of the lung in patients with stage I disease. Am J Surg Pathol 2014; 38 (04) 448-460
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 12 Weichert W, Warth A. Early lung cancer with lepidic pattern: adenocarcinoma in situ, minimally invasive adenocarcinoma, and lepidic predominant adenocarcinoma. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2014; 20 (04) 309-316
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 13 Pittaro A, Crivelli F, Orlando G. et al. Pulmonary low malignant potential adenocarcinoma: a validation of the proposed criteria for this novel subtype. Am J Surg Pathol 2024; 48 (02) 204-211
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 14 Yambayev I, Sullivan TB, Suzuki K. et al. Pulmonary adenocarcinomas of low malignant potential: proposed criteria to expand the spectrum beyond adenocarcinoma in situ and minimally invasive adenocarcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol 2021; 45 (04) 567-576
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 15 Moghaddam SJ, Savai R, Salehi-Rad R. et al. Premalignant progression in the lung: knowledge gaps and novel opportunities for interception of non-small cell lung cancer. An Official American Thoracic Society Research Statement. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2024; 210 (05) 548-571
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 16 Naito M, Aokage K, Saruwatari K. et al. Microenvironmental changes in the progression from adenocarcinoma in situ to minimally invasive adenocarcinoma and invasive lepidic predominant adenocarcinoma of the lung. Lung Cancer 2016; 100: 53-62
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 17 Juul NH, Yoon J-K, Martinez MC. et al. KRAS(G12D) drives lepidic adenocarcinoma through stem-cell reprogramming. Nature 2023; 619 (7971) 860-867
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 18 Austin JHM, Garg K, Aberle D. et al. Radiologic implications of the 2011 classification of adenocarcinoma of the lung. Radiology 2013; 266 (01) 62-71
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 19 Chang WC, Zhang YZ, Nicholson AG. Pulmonary invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma. Histopathology 2024; 84 (01) 18-31
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 20 Kim HS, Dugan AJ, Godden J, Chao CY, Chae YK. Clinicopathologic and molecular landscape of invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma of the lung. J Clin Oncol 2024; 42 (16) 8037-8037
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 21 Boland JM, Maleszewski JJ, Wampfler JA. et al. Pulmonary invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma and mixed invasive mucinous/nonmucinous adenocarcinoma-a clinicopathological and molecular genetic study with survival analysis. Hum Pathol 2018; 71: 8-19
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 22 Aimalla N, Kesireddy M, Yadukumar L. Incidence trends and factors affecting survival in mucinous adenocarcinoma of the lung: insights from SEER data. J Clin Oncol 2024; 42 (16) e20090-e20090
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 23 Ueda D, Ito M, Tsutani Y. et al. Comprehensive analysis of the clinicopathological features, targetable profile, and prognosis of mucinous adenocarcinoma of the lung. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2021; 147 (12) 3709-3718
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 24 Kishikawa S, Hayashi T, Saito T. et al. Diffuse expression of MUC6 defines a distinct clinicopathological subset of pulmonary invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma. Mod Pathol 2021; 34 (04) 786-797
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 25 Kadota K, Yeh Y-C, D'Angelo SP. et al. Associations between mutations and histologic patterns of mucin in lung adenocarcinoma: invasive mucinous pattern and extracellular mucin are associated with KRAS mutation. Am J Surg Pathol 2014; 38 (08) 1118-1127
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 26 Sugano M, Nagasaka T, Sasaki E. et al. HNF4α as a marker for invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma of the lung. Am J Surg Pathol 2013; 37 (02) 211-218
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 27 Sun X, Zeng B, Tan X, Chen Z, Pan X, Jiang L. Invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma of the lung: clinicopathological features, 18F-FDG PET/CT findings, and survival outcomes. Ann Nucl Med 2023; 37 (03) 198-207
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 28 Miyamoto A, Kurosaki A, Fujii T, Kishi K, Homma S. HRCT features of surgically resected invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma associated with interstitial pneumonia. Respirology 2017; 22 (04) 735-743
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 29 Detterbeck FC, Lewis SZ, Diekemper R, Addrizzo-Harris D, Alberts WM. Executive summary: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2013; 143 (05) 7S-37S
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 30 Rivera MP, Mehta AC, Wahidi MM. Establishing the diagnosis of lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2013; 143 (05) e142S-e165S
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 31 Kidane B, Bott M, Spicer J. et al; Expert Consensus Panel. The American Association for Thoracic Surgery (AATS) 2023 Expert Consensus Document: staging and multidisciplinary management of patients with early-stage non-small cell lung cancer. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2023; 166 (03) 637-654
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 32 Shen F, Wu X, Geng J, Guo W, Duan J. Prognostic factors for resected invasive mucinous lung adenocarcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Cancer 2024; 24 (01) 1317
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 33 Lee JO, Lee GD, Choi S. et al. Surgical prognosis of lung invasive mucinous and non-mucinous adenocarcinoma: propensity score matched analysis. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2024; 66 (03) ezae316
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 34 Lee HY, Cha MJ, Lee KS. et al. Prognosis in resected invasive mucinous adenocarcinomas of the lung: related factors and comparison with resected nonmucinous adenocarcinomas. J Thorac Oncol 2016; 11 (07) 1064-1073
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 35 Saito T, Tsuta K, Honda O. et al. Prognostic impact of mucin spread, tumor cell spread, and invasive size in invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma of the lung. Lung Cancer 2020; 146: 50-57
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 36 Li W, Yang Y, Yang M. et al. Clinicopathologic features and survival outcomes of primary lung mucinous adenocarcinoma based on different radiologic subtypes. Ann Surg Oncol 2024; 31 (01) 167-177
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 37 Kris MG, Gaspar LE, Chaft JE. et al. Adjuvant systemic therapy and adjuvant radiation therapy for stage I to IIIA completely resected non-small-cell lung cancers: American Society of Clinical Oncology/Cancer Care Ontario Clinical Practice Guideline Update. J Clin Oncol 2017; 35 (25) 2960-2974
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 38 Zhang Y-N, Cao K, Yang Y. et al. Case report: do not diagnose lung cancer as pneumonia: continue to monitor a case of invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma as it progresses from small to large. Front Med (Lausanne) 2025; 12: 1578874
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 39 Zhu D, Zhang Q, Rui Z, Xu S. Pulmonary invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma mimicking pulmonary actinomycosis. BMC Pulm Med 2022; 22 (01) 181
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 40 Sanguedolce F, Zanelli M, Zizzo M. et al. Primary pulmonary B-cell lymphoma: a review and update. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13 (03) 415
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 41 Borie R, Wislez M, Antoine M, Cadranel J. Lymphoproliferative disorders of the lung. Respiration 2017; 94 (02) 157-175
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 42 Piña-Oviedo S, Weissferdt A, Kalhor N, Moran CA. Primary pulmonary lymphomas. Adv Anat Pathol 2015; 22 (06) 355-375
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 43 Wang Y, Han J, Zhang F. et al. Comparison of radiologic characteristics and pathological presentations of primary pulmonary lymphoma in 22 patients. J Int Med Res 2020; 48 (04) 300060519879854
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 44 He H, Tan F, Xue Q. et al. Clinicopathological characteristics and prognostic factors of primary pulmonary lymphoma. J Thorac Dis 2021; 13 (02) 1106-1117
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 45 Hu M, Gu W, Chen S, Mei J, Wang W. Clinical analysis of 50 cases of primary pulmonary lymphoma: a retrospective study and literature review. Technol Cancer Res Treat 2022 21 :15330338221075529
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 46 Vela V, Juskevicius D, Prince SS. et al. Deciphering the genetic landscape of pulmonary lymphomas. Mod Pathol 2021; 34 (02) 371-379
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 47 Shen H, Zhou Y. Clinical features and surgical treatment of primary pulmonary lymphoma: a retrospective study. Front Oncol 2022; 12: 779395
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 48 Deng W, Wan Y, Yu JQ. Pulmonary MALT Lymphoma has variable features on CT. Sci Rep 2019; 9 (01) 8657
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 49 Bi W, Zhao S, Wu C. et al. Pulmonary mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma: CT findings and pathological basis. J Surg Oncol 2021; 123 (05) 1336-1344
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 50 Li S, Wang L, Chang N. et al. Differential clinical and CT imaging features of pneumonic-type primary pulmonary lymphoma and pneumonia: a retrospective multicentre observational study. BMJ Open 2023; 13 (10) e077198
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 51 Chen Y, Chen A, Jiang H. et al. HRCT in primary pulmonary lymphoma: can CT imaging phenotypes differentiate histological subtypes between mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma and non-MALT lymphoma?. J Thorac Dis 2018; 10 (11) 6040-6049
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 52 Ooi GC, Chim CS, Lie AKW, Tsang KWT. Computed tomography features of primary pulmonary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Clin Radiol 1999; 54 (07) 438-443
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 53 Cadranel J, Wislez M, Antoine M. Primary pulmonary lymphoma. Eur Respir J 2002; 20 (03) 750-762
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 54 Lin H, Zhou K, Peng Z, Liang L, Cao J, Mei J. Surgery and chemotherapy cannot improve the survival of patients with early-stage mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue derived primary pulmonary lymphoma. Front Oncol 2022; 12: 965727
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 55 Berkman N, Breuer R, Kramer MR, Polliack A. Pulmonary involvement in lymphoma. Leuk Lymphoma 1996; 20 (3–4): 229-237
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 56 Pan Z, Xu ML. T-cell and NK-cell lymphomas in the lung. Semin Diagn Pathol 2020; 37 (06) 273-282
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 57 Hare SS, Souza CA, Bain G. et al. The radiological spectrum of pulmonary lymphoproliferative disease. Br J Radiol 2012; 85 (1015) 848-864
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 58 Eisner MD, Kaplan LD, Herndier B, Stulbarg MS. The pulmonary manifestations of AIDS-related non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Chest 1996; 110 (03) 729-736
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 59 Costa MBG, Siqueira SAC, Saldiva PHN, Rabe KF, Mauad T. Histologic patterns of lung infiltration of B-cell, T-cell, and Hodgkin lymphomas. Am J Clin Pathol 2004; 121 (05) 718-726
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 60 Balikian JP, Herman PG. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma of the lungs. Radiology 1979; 132 (03) 569-576
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 61 Fujita N, Ando M, Goto A. et al. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma arising from the lesion of chronic lobar atelectasis. Tohoku J Exp Med 2020; 250 (02) 129-135
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 62 Wang S, Zheng Y, Wang Z. et al. Comparison of chest CT manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and pneumonia associated with lymphoma. Int J Med Sci 2020; 17 (13) 1909-1915
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 63 Zompi S, Couderc L-J, Cadranel J. et al. Clonality analysis of alveolar B lymphocytes contributes to the diagnostic strategy in clinical suspicion of pulmonary lymphoma. Blood 2004; 103 (08) 3208-3215
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 64 Cheson BD, Fisher RI, Barrington SF. et al; Alliance, Australasian Leukaemia and Lymphoma Group, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group, European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Consortium, Italian Lymphoma Foundation, European Organisation for Research, Treatment of Cancer/Dutch Hemato-Oncology Group, Grupo Español de Médula Ósea, German High-Grade Lymphoma Study Group, German Hodgkin's Study Group, Japanese Lymphorra Study Group, Lymphoma Study Association, NCIC Clinical Trials Group, Nordic Lymphoma Study Group, Southwest Oncology Group, United Kingdom National Cancer Research Institute. Recommendations for initial evaluation, staging, and response assessment of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma: the Lugano classification. J Clin Oncol 2014; 32 (27) 3059-3068
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 65 Marchesi F, Cattaneo C, Criscuolo M. et al; Sorveglianza Epidemiologica Infezioni nelle Emopatie (SEIFEM) Group. A bronchoalveolar lavage-driven antimicrobial treatment improves survival in hematologic malignancy patients with detected lung infiltrates: a prospective multicenter study of the SEIFEM group. Am J Hematol 2019; 94 (10) 1104-1112
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 66 Koh TT, Colby TV, Müller NL. Myeloid leukemias and lung involvement. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 26 (05) 514-519
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 67 Kakihana K, Ohashi K, Sakai F. et al. Leukemic infiltration of the lung following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Int J Hematol 2009; 89 (01) 118-122
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 68 Hill BT, Weil AC, Kalaycio M, Cook JR. Pulmonary involvement by chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma is a specific pathologic finding independent of inflammatory infiltration. Leuk Lymphoma 2012; 53 (04) 589-595
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 69 Shroff GS, Truong MT, Carter BW. et al. Leukemic involvement in the thorax. Radiographics 2019; 39 (01) 44-61
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 70 Khoury JD, Chen W. Myeloid diseases in the lung and pleura. Semin Diagn Pathol 2020; 37 (06) 296-302
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 71 Wu Y-K, Huang Y-C, Huang S-F, Huang C-C, Tsai Y-H. Acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by leukemic infiltration of the lung. J Formos Med Assoc 2008; 107 (05) 419-423
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 72 Tanaka N, Matsumoto T, Miura G. et al. CT findings of leukemic pulmonary infiltration with pathologic correlation. Eur Radiol 2002; 12 (01) 166-174
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 73 Stefanski M, Jamis-Dow C, Bayerl M, Desai RJ, Claxton DF, Van de Louw A. Chest radiographic and CT findings in hyperleukocytic acute myeloid leukemia: a retrospective cohort study of 73 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95 (44) e5285
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 74 Potenza L, Luppi M, Morselli M. et al. Leukaemic pulmonary infiltrates in adult acute myeloid leukaemia: a high-resolution computerized tomography study. Br J Haematol 2003; 120 (06) 1058-1061
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 75 O'Leary M, Cantley RL, Kluskens L, Gattuso P. Cytologic findings of acute leukemia in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Diagn Cytopathol 2013; 41 (07) 613-616
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 76 Maschmeyer G, Donnelly JP. How to manage lung infiltrates in adults suffering from haematological malignancies outside allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Br J Haematol 2016; 173 (02) 179-189
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 77 Leis JF, Primack SL, Schubach SE, Curtin PT, Druker BJ, Maziarz RT. Management of life-threatening pulmonary leukostasis with single agent imatinib mesylate during CML myeloid blast crisis. Haematologica 2004; 89 (09) ECR30
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 78 ZuWallack RL, Urman JD, Lahiri B. Metastatic melanoma. Another cause of a solitary pulmonary nodule with an air bronchogram. Radiology 1977; 123 (02) 286-286
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 79 Gaeta M, Volta S, Scribano E, Loria G, Vallone A, Pandolfo I. Air-space pattern in lung metastasis from adenocarcinoma of the GI tract. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1996; 20 (02) 300-304
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 80 Seo JB, Im JG, Goo JM, Chung MJ, Kim MY. Atypical pulmonary metastases: spectrum of radiologic findings. Radiographics 2001; 21 (02) 403-417
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 81 Webb WR, Gamsu G. Thoracic metastasis in malignant melanoma. A radiographic survey of 65 patients. Chest 1977; 71 (02) 176-181
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 82 Wei H, Miao J, Cui J. et al. The prognosis and clinicopathological features of different distant metastases patterns in renal cell carcinoma: analysis based on the SEER database. Sci Rep 2021; 11 (01) 17822
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 83 Xue J, Chen W, Xu W. et al. Patterns of distant metastases in patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma–a population-based analysis. Cancer Med 2021; 10 (01) 173-187
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 84 Dudani S, de Velasco G, Wells JC. et al. Evaluation of clear cell, papillary, and chromophobe renal cell carcinoma metastasis sites and association with survival. JAMA Netw Open 2021; 4 (01) e2021869
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 85 Krishnan V, Bane SM, Kawle PD, Naresh KN, Kalraiya RD. Altered melanoma cell surface glycosylation mediates organ specific adhesion and metastasis via lectin receptors on the lung vascular endothelium. Clin Exp Metastasis 2005; 22 (01) 11-24
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 86 Akhtar M, Haider A, Rashid S, Al-Nabet ADMH. Paget's “seed and soil” theory of cancer metastasis: an idea whose time has come. Adv Anat Pathol 2019; 26 (01) 69-74
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 87 Xiong K, Qi M, Stoeger T, Zhang J, Chen S. The role of tumor-associated macrophages and soluble mediators in pulmonary metastatic melanoma. Front Immunol 2022; 13: 1000927
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 88 Padua D, Zhang XH-F, Wang Q. et al. TGFbeta primes breast tumors for lung metastasis seeding through angiopoietin-like 4. Cell 2008; 133 (01) 66-77
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 89 Franquet T, Rosado-de-Christenson ML, Marchiori E, Abbott GF, Martínez-Jiménez S, López L. Uncommon thoracic manifestations from extrapulmonary tumors: computed tomography evaluation - pictorial review. Respir Med 2020; 168: 105986
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 90 Meacci E, Nachira D, Congedo MT. et al. Surgical resection of pulmonary metastases from melanoma in oligometastatic patients: results from a multicentric study in the era of immunoncology and targeted therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15 (09) 2462
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 91 Baldes N, Eberlein M, Bölükbas S. Multimodal and palliative treatment of patients with pulmonary metastases. J Thorac Dis 2021; 13 (04) 2686-2691
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 92 Manucha V, Hansen JT, Gonzalez MF, Akhtar I. Role of cytology and immunochemistry in diagnosis of metastatic malignancies in the lung: a critical appraisal. Diagn Cytopathol 2018; 46 (11) 936-944
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 93 Libshitz HI, Baber CE, Hammond CB. The pulmonary metastases of choriocarcinoma. Obstet Gynecol 1977; 49 (04) 412-416
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 94 Kelly MP, Rustin GJS, Ivory C, Phillips P, Bagshawe KD. Respiratory failure due to choriocarcinoma: a study of 103 dyspneic patients. Gynecol Oncol 1990; 38 (02) 149-154
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 95 Rejlekova K, Cursano MC, De Giorgi U, Mego M. Severe complications in testicular germ cell tumors: the choriocarcinoma syndrome. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10: 218
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 96 Tian Q, Xue Y, Zheng W. et al. Overexpression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α induces migration and invasion through Notch signaling. Int J Oncol 2015; 47 (02) 728-738
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 97 Maruoka Y, Abe K, Baba S. et al. A case of pulmonary choriocarcinoma metastasis with unusual FDG-PET and CT findings: correlation with pathology. Ann Nucl Med 2012; 26 (10) 835-839
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 98 Gu Q, Yan S, Lin J. et al. Choriocarcinoma masquerading as lung abscess or lung cancer: a case with atypical imaging findings. OncoTargets Ther 2021; 14: 4407-4414
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 99 Gasparri R, Sedda G, Brambilla D, Girelli L, Diotti C, Spaggiari L. When a differential diagnosis is fundamental: choriocarcinoma mimicking lung carcinoma. J Clin Med 2019; 8 (11) 2018
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 100 Martínez-Jiménez S, Rosado-de-Christenson ML, Walker CM. et al. Imaging features of thoracic metastases from gynecologic neoplasms. Radiographics 2014; 34 (06) 1742-1754
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 101 Wegman SJ, Parwani AV, Zynger DL. Cytokeratin 7, inhibin, and p63 in testicular germ cell tumor: superior markers of choriocarcinoma compared to β-human chorionic gonadotropin. Hum Pathol 2019; 84: 254-261
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 102 Hui P. Gestational choriocarcinoma: a timely review of diagnostic pathology. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2025;
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 103 Sierra-Bergua B, Sánchez-Marteles M, Cabrerizo-García JL, Sanjoaquin-Conde I. Choriocarcinoma with pulmonary and cerebral metastases. Singapore Med J 2008; 49 (10) e286-e288
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 104 Li J, Yang J, Liu P. et al. Clinical characteristics and prognosis of 272 postterm choriocarcinoma patients at Peking Union Medical College Hospital: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Cancer 2016; 16 (01) 347
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 105 Taran F-A, Wosnik A, Juhasz-Böss I, Burtscher K, Morakis P. Clinical routine care for choriocarcinoma: a descriptive analysis of data from the Baden-Wuerttemberg Cancer Registry (BWCR). Arch Gynecol Obstet 2025; 312 (02) 547-554
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 106 Zhang J, Wang ZJ, Yang B. et al. Biochemical remission by chemoradiotherapy in male mediastinal choriocarcinoma with diffuse lung metastasis: a case report. Oncol Lett 2016; 11 (04) 2615-2618
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 107 Trapnell BC, Nakata K, Bonella F. et al. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2019; 5 (01) 16
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 108 Lettieri S, Bonella F, Marando VA, Franciosi AN, Corsico AG, Campo I. Pathogenesis-driven treatment of primary pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. Eur Respir Rev 2024; 33 (173) 240064
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 109 Morton C, DeBiasi E. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. Clin Chest Med 2025; 46 (02) 373-382
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 110 Zhang D, Tian X, Feng R. et al. Secondary pulmonary alveolar proteinosis: a single-center retrospective study (a case series and literature review). BMC Pulm Med 2018; 18 (01) 15
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 111 Liu Y, Chen LL, Qiu YY, Xiao YL, Cai HR. Clinical features of secondary pulmonary alveolar proteinosis associated with myelodysplastic syndrome: two case reports. Medicine (Baltimore) 2017; 96 (44) e8481
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 112 Ladeb S, Fleury-Feith J, Escudier E, Tran Van Nhieu J, Bernaudin J-F, Cordonnier C. Secondary alveolar proteinosis in cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 1996; 4 (06) 420-426
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 113 Ishii H, Seymour JF, Tazawa R. et al. Secondary pulmonary alveolar proteinosis complicating myelodysplastic syndrome results in worsening of prognosis: a retrospective cohort study in Japan. BMC Pulm Med 2014; 14 (01) 37
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 114 Aydin M, Flenaugh EL, Nichols M. Hemoptysis, anemia and respiratory failure: a rare initial presentation of acute leukemia. J Natl Med Assoc 2005; 97 (11) 1550-1552
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 115 Choi MH, Jung JI, Chung WD. et al. Acute pulmonary complications in patients with hematologic malignancies. Radiographics 2014; 34 (06) 1755-1768
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 116 Luesink M, Jansen JH. Advances in understanding the pulmonary infiltration in acute promyelocytic leukaemia. Br J Haematol 2010; 151 (03) 209-220
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 117 Würthner JU, Köhler G, Behringer D, Lindemann A, Mertelsmann R, Lübbert M. Leukostasis followed by hemorrhage complicating the initiation of chemotherapy in patients with acute myeloid leukemia and hyperleukocytosis: a clinicopathologic report of four cases. Cancer 1999; 85 (02) 368-374
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 118 Azoulay E, Maertens J, Lemiale V. How I manage acute respiratory failure in patients with hematological malignancies. Blood 2024; 143 (11) 971-982
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 119 Nanjappa S, Jeong DK, Muddaraju M, Jeong K, Hill ED, Greene JN. Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage in acute myeloid leukemia. Cancer Control 2016; 23 (03) 272-277
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 120 Butler M, Defayette A, Pleskow J, Loecher A, Ross M, Quinn T. Treatment patterns and outcomes of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage: findings from a single-center retrospective study. J Clin Oncol 2023; 41 (16) e19063-e19063
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 121 Jin SM, Yim JJ, Yoo CG. et al. Aetiologies and outcomes of diffuse alveolar haemorrhage presenting as acute respiratory failure of uncertain cause. Respirology 2009; 14 (02) 290-294
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 122 Kumasaka S, Kumasaka Y, Jingu A, Tsushima Y. Diagnostic value of “hyperdense consolidation sign” as a characteristic new computed tomography sign of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage. Sci Rep 2022; 12 (01) 21143
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 123 Ahn JH, Song KM, Huh JW. et al. Corticosteroid therapy for diffuse alveolar hemorrhage with respiratory failure in hematologic malignancies: a retrospective cohort study. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2025; 21: 705-714
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 124 Schneider BJ, Naidoo J, Santomasso BD. et al. Management of immune-related adverse events in patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy: ASCO guideline update. J Clin Oncol 2021; 39 (36) 4073-4126
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 125 Guo X, Chen S, Wang X, Liu X. Immune-related pulmonary toxicities of checkpoint inhibitors in non-small cell lung cancer: diagnosis, mechanism, and treatment strategies. Front Immunol 2023; 14: 1138483
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 126 Lin M-X, Zang D, Liu C-G, Han X, Chen J. Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related pneumonitis: research advances in prediction and management. Front Immunol 2024; 15: 1266850
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 127 Naidoo J, Wang X, Woo KM. et al. Pneumonitis in patients treated with anti-programmed death-1/programmed death ligand 1 therapy. J Clin Oncol 2017; 35 (07) 709-717
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 128 Cui P, Li J, Tao H. et al. Deciphering pathogenic cellular module at single-cell resolution in checkpoint inhibitor-related pneumonitis. Oncogene 2023; 42 (42) 3098-3112
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 129 Johkoh T, Lee KS, Nishino M. et al. Chest CT diagnosis and clinical management of drug-related pneumonitis in patients receiving molecular targeting agents and immune checkpoint inhibitors: a position paper from the Fleischner Society. Chest 2021; 159 (03) 1107-1125
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 130 Carbone RG, Puppo F, Mattar E, Roden AC, Hirani N. Acute and chronic eosinophilic pneumonia: an overview. Front Med (Lausanne) 2024; 11: 1355247
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 131 Zimmermann N, Wikenheiser-Brokamp KA. Hypereosinophilic syndrome in the differential diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates with eosinophilia. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2018; 121 (02) 179-185
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 132 Zanelli M, Smith M, Zizzo M. et al. A tricky and rare cause of pulmonary eosinophilia: myeloid/lymphoid neoplasm with eosinophilia and rearrangement of PDGFRA. BMC Pulm Med 2019; 19 (01) 216
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 133 Morales-Camacho RM, Caballero-Velázquez T, Borrero JJ, Bernal R, Prats-Martín C. Hematological neoplasms with eosinophilia. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16 (02) 337
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 134 Shomali W, Gotlib J. World Health Organization and International Consensus Classification of eosinophilic disorders: 2024 update on diagnosis, risk stratification, and management. Am J Hematol 2024; 99 (05) 946-968
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 135 Kelemen K, Saft L, Craig FE. et al. Eosinophilia/hypereosinophilia in the setting of reactive and idiopathic causes, well-defined myeloid or lymphoid leukemias, or germline disorders. Am J Clin Pathol 2021; 155 (02) 179-210
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 136 Cottin V. Eosinophilic lung diseases. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2023; 43 (02) 289-322
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 137 Katre RS, Sunnapwar A, Restrepo CS. et al. Cardiopulmonary and gastrointestinal manifestations of eosinophil- associated diseases and idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndromes: multimodality imaging approach. Radiographics 2016; 36 (02) 433-451
    Suche in Google Scholar