Facial Plast Surg 2015; 31(02): 117-122
DOI: 10.1055/s-0035-1549042
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Facial Paralysis in Children

Sashank Reddy
1   Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
,
Richard Redett
1   Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
08 May 2015 (online)

Abstract

Facial paralysis can have devastating physical and psychosocial consequences. These are particularly severe in children in whom loss of emotional expressiveness can impair social development and integration. The etiologies of facial paralysis, prospects for spontaneous recovery, and functions requiring restoration differ in children as compared with adults. Here we review contemporary management of facial paralysis with a focus on special considerations for pediatric patients.

 
  • References

  • 1 Terzis JK, Anesti K. Developmental facial paralysis: a review. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2011; 64 (10) 1318-1333
  • 2 Tajima T, Imai H. Results of median nerve repair in children. Microsurgery 1989; 10 (2) 145-146
  • 3 Baysefer A, Izci Y, Akay KM, Kayali H, Timurkaynak E. Surgical outcomes of ulnar nerve lesions in children. A retrospective clinical study. Pediatr Neurosurg 2004; 40 (3) 107-111
  • 4 Saito T, Yamada T, Okamoto M, Narita N. Comparison of regeneration of the chorda tympani nerve and gustatory function recovery after severing the nerve between pediatric and adult patients. Otology & neurotology: official publication of the American Otological Society, American Neurotology Society. Otology & Neurotology 2012; 33 (9) 1567-1572
  • 5 Lifchez SD, Matloub HS, Gosain AK. Cortical adaptation to restoration of smiling after free muscle transfer innervated by the nerve to the masseter. Plast Reconstr Surg 2005; 115 (6) 1472-1479 , discussion 1480–1482
  • 6 Evans AK, Licameli G, Brietzke S, Whittemore K, Kenna M. Pediatric facial nerve paralysis: patients, management and outcomes. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2005; 69 (11) 1521-1528
  • 7 Falco NA, Eriksson E. Facial nerve palsy in the newborn: incidence and outcome. Plast Reconstr Surg 1990; 85 (1) 1-4
  • 8 Leong S, Ashwell KW. Is there a zone of vascular vulnerability in the fetal brain stem?. Neurotoxicol Teratol 1997; 19 (4) 265-275
  • 9 Bavinck JN, Weaver DD. Subclavian artery supply disruption sequence: hypothesis of a vascular etiology for Poland, Klippel-Feil, and Möbius anomalies. Am J Med Genet 1986; 23 (4) 903-918
  • 10 Bergstrom L, Baker BB. Syndromes associated with congenital facial paralysis. Otolaryngology–head and neck surgery: official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology. Head Neck Surg 1981; 89 (2) 336-342
  • 11 Rosson GD, Redett RJ. Facial palsy: anatomy, etiology, grading, and surgical treatment. J Reconstr Microsurg 2008; 24 (6) 379-389
  • 12 Toelle SP, Boltshauser E. Long-term outcome in children with congenital unilateral facial nerve palsy. Neuropediatrics 2001; 32 (3) 130-135
  • 13 Al Tawil K, Saleem N, Kadri H, Rifae MT, Tawakol H. Traumatic facial nerve palsy in newborns: is it always iatrogenic?. Am J Perinatol 2010; 27 (9) 711-713
  • 14 Duval M, Daniel SJ. Facial nerve palsy in neonates secondary to forceps use. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2009; 135 (7) 634-636
  • 15 Hughes CA, Harley EH, Milmoe G, Bala R, Martorella A. Birth trauma in the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1999; 125 (2) 193-199
  • 16 Elliott CA, Zalzal GH, Gottlieb WR. Acute otitis media and facial paralysis in children. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1996; 105 (1) 58-62
  • 17 Weber RA, Breidenbach WC, Brown RE, Jabaley ME, Mass DP. A randomized prospective study of polyglycolic acid conduits for digital nerve reconstruction in humans. Plast Reconstr Surg 2000; 106 (5) 1036-1045 , discussion 1046–1048
  • 18 Diaz LM, Steele MH, Guerra AB , et al. The role of topically administered FK506 (tacrolimus) at the time of facial nerve repair using entubulation neurorrhaphy in a rabbit model. Ann Plast Surg 2004; 52 (4) 407-413
  • 19 Navissano M, Malan F, Carnino R, Battiston B. Neurotube for facial nerve repair. Microsurgery 2005; 25 (4) 268-271
  • 20 Myckatyn TM, Mackinnon SE. The surgical management of facial nerve injury. Clin Plast Surg 2003; 30 (2) 307-318
  • 21 Samii M, Matthies C. Indication, technique and results of facial nerve reconstruction. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1994; 130 (1–4) 125-139
  • 22 Clark JH, Burger PC, Boahene DK, Niparko JK. Traumatic facial nerve neuroma with facial palsy presenting in infancy. Otology & neurotology: official publication of the American Otological Society, American Neurotology Society. Otol Neurotol 2010; 31 (5) 813-816
  • 23 McMonagle B, Al-Sanosi A, Croxson G, Fagan P. Facial schwannoma: results of a large case series and review. J Laryngol Otol 2008; 122 (11) 1139-1150
  • 24 Dorafshar AH, Borsuk DE, Bojovic B , et al. Surface anatomy of the middle division of the facial nerve: Zuker's point. Plast Reconstr Surg 2013; 131 (2) 253-257
  • 25 Terzis JK, Tzafetta K. The “babysitter” procedure: minihypoglossal to facial nerve transfer and cross-facial nerve grafting. Plast Reconstr Surg 2009; 123 (3) 865-876
  • 26 Coombs CJ, Ek EW, Wu T, Cleland H, Leung MK. Masseteric-facial nerve coaptation—an alternative technique for facial nerve reinnervation. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2009; 62 (12) 1580-1588
  • 27 Manktelow RT, Tomat LR, Zuker RM, Chang M. Smile reconstruction in adults with free muscle transfer innervated by the masseter motor nerve: effectiveness and cerebral adaptation. Plast Reconstr Surg 2006; 118 (4) 885-899
  • 28 Marre D, Hontanilla B. Brain plasticity in Möbius syndrome after unilateral muscle transfer: case report and review of the literature. Ann Plast Surg 2012; 68 (1) 97-100
  • 29 Manni JJ, Beurskens CH, van de Velde C, Stokroos RJ. Reanimation of the paralyzed face by indirect hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis. Am J Surg 2001; 182 (3) 268-273
  • 30 Harii K, Ohmori K, Torii S. Free gracilis muscle transplantation, with microneurovascular anastomoses for the treatment of facial paralysis. A preliminary report. Plast Reconstr Surg 1976; 57 (2) 133-143
  • 31 Takushima A, Harii K, Asato H, Kurita M, Shiraishi T. Fifteen-year survey of one-stage latissimus dorsi muscle transfer for treatment of longstanding facial paralysis. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2013; 66 (1) 29-36
  • 32 Mackinnon SE, Dellon AL. Technical considerations of the latissimus dorsi muscle flap: a segmentally innervated muscle transfer for facial reanimation. Microsurgery 1988; 9 (1) 36-45
  • 33 Harrison DH, Grobbelaar AO. Pectoralis minor muscle transfer for unilateral facial palsy reanimation: an experience of 35 years and 637 cases. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2012; 65 (7) 845-850
  • 34 Terzis JK. Pectoralis minor: a unique muscle for correction of facial palsy. Plast Reconstr Surg 1989; 83 (5) 767-776
  • 35 Dellon AL, Mackinnon SE. Segmentally innervated latissimus dorsi muscle. Microsurgical transfer for facial reanimation. J Reconstr Microsurg 1985; 2 (1) 7-12
  • 36 Yücel A, Aydin Y, Yazar S, Altintaş F, Senyuva C. Elective free-tissue transfer in pediatric patients. J Reconstr Microsurg 2001; 17 (1) 27-36
  • 37 Terzis JK, Olivares FS. Long-term outcomes of free muscle transfer for smile restoration in children. Plast Reconstr Surg 2009; 123 (2) 543-555
  • 38 Boahene KD, Farrag TY, Ishii L, Byrne PJ. Minimally invasive temporalis tendon transposition. Arch Facial Plast Surg 2011; 13 (1) 8-13
  • 39 Hussain G, Manktelow RT, Tomat LR. Depressor labii inferioris resection: an effective treatment for marginal mandibular nerve paralysis. Br J Plast Surg 2004; 57 (6) 502-510
  • 40 Tulley P, Webb A, Chana JS , et al. Paralysis of the marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve: treatment options. Br J Plast Surg 2000; 53 (5) 378-385
  • 41 Terzis JK, Kyere SA. Experience with the gold weight and palpebral spring in the management of paralytic lagophthalmos. Plast Reconstr Surg 2008; 121 (3) 806-815
  • 42 Terzis JK, Karypidis D. The outcomes of dynamic procedures for blink restoration in pediatric facial paralysis. Plast Reconstr Surg 2010; 125 (2) 629-644
  • 43 Frey M, Giovanoli P, Tzou CH, Kropf N, Friedl S. Dynamic reconstruction of eye closure by muscle transposition or functional muscle transplantation in facial palsy. Plast Reconstr Surg 2004; 114 (4) 865-875
  • 44 Manktelow RT, Zuker RM. Muscle transplantation by fascicular territory. Plast Reconstr Surg 1984; 73 (5) 751-757