Okuläre Herpesviridae-Infektionen – Labordiagnostik und Therapeutika

Infektionen mit Herpes-simplex-Virus Typ 1/2, Varizella-Zoster-Virus, Zytomegalievirus und Epstein-Barr-Virus sind von immerwährender Relevanz in der Augenheilkunde. Verschiedenste Untersuchungsverfahren stehen zur weiteren Abklärung zur Verfügung, falls es nicht möglich ist, die Diagnose mittels Anamnese und augenärztlicher Untersuchung zu stellen. Der Übersichtsartikel diskutiert indikationsspezifisch die Vor- und Nachteile der labormedizinischen Methoden. Serologische Verfahren aus peripherem Blut sind allgemein nicht zur Abklärung empfohlen. Die Polymerase-Ketten-Reaktion (PCR) ist gegenüber der Viruskultur als Standardmethode des Virusdirektnachweises sensitiver, schneller und präanalytisch unkomplizierter, weshalb aktuelle Studien zum Einsatz der PCR einen Schwerpunkt des Artikels bilden. Antivirale Therapeutika bilden das Rückgrat der konservativen Behandlung der durch Herpesviridae hervorgerufenen Krankheitsbilder. Einem Überblick über verfügbare Virustatika, ihre Indikationen, Wirkmechanismen und häufige unerwünschte Arzneimittelwirkungen (UAW) folgen eine Darstellung der entitätsspezifischen Studienlage sowie Fragen zum Umgang mit speziellen Patientengruppen (z. B. Kinder, Schwangere) und ein Ausblick auf mögliche zukünftige Therapieansätze.

• Literatur

• 1 Farooq AV, Shukla D. Herpes simplex epithelial and stromal keratitis: an epidemiologic update. Surv Ophthalmol 2012; 57: 448-462
• 2 Mettenleiter TC, Klupp BG, Granzow H. Herpesvirus assembly: an update. Virus Res 2009; 143: 222-234
• 3 Kennedy DP, Clement C, Arceneaux RL et al. Ocular herpes simplex virus type 1: is the cornea a reservoir for viral latency or a fast pit stop?. Cornea 2011; 30: 251-259
• 4 Griffin BD, Verweij MC, Wiertz EJ. Herpesviruses and immunity: the art of evasion. Vet Microbiol 2010; 143: 89-100
• 5 Robert Koch-Institut. Herpes simplex-Virus Typ 1 (HSV 1) und Typ 2 (HSV 2): Seroprävalenz in der deutschen Bevölkerung: Veränderungen über die Zeit und Vergleich zwischen den alten (ABL) und neuen (NBL) Bundesländern (18. 01. 2005).. Im Internet: http://www.rki.de/DE/Content/InfAZ/H/Herpes/Herpes_Forschung.html Stand: 23.09.2014
• 6 Hecker M, Qiu D, Marquardt K et al. Continuous cytomegalovirus seroconversion in a large group of healthy blood donors. Vox Sang 2004; 86: 41-44
• 7 Wutzler P, Färber I, Wagenpfeil S et al. Seroprevalence of varicella-zoster virus in the German population. Vaccine 2001; 20: 121-124
• 8 Rabenau H, Buxbaum S, Preiser W et al. Seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus types 1 and type 2 in the Frankfurt am Main area, Germany. Med Microbiol Immunol 2002; 190: 153-160
• 9 Franck S, Rabenau HF, Doerr HW. Prävalenz von Antikörpern gegen Viren und Chlamydien bei Krankenhauspatienten mit und ohne koronarer Herzerkrankung. J Lab Med 2000; 24: 416-421
• 10 Darougar S, Hunter PA, Viswalingam M et al. Acute follicular conjunctivitis and keratoconjunctivitis due to herpes simplex virus in London. Br J Ophthalmol 1978; 62: 843-849
• 11 Behrens-Baumann W. Herpes-simplex-Keratitis. Ein kurzer Überblick zur aktuellen Therapie. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 2010; 227: 388-392
• 12 Liesegang TJ, Melton LJ, Daly PJ et al. Epidemiology of ocular herpes simplex. Incidence in Rochester, Minn, 1950 through 1982. Arch Ophthalmol 1989; 107: 1155-1159
• 13 Khan BF, Pavan-Langston D. Clinical manifestations and treatment modalities in herpes simplex virus of the ocular anterior segment. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2004; 44: 103-133
• 14 Liesegang TJ. Herpes simplex virus epidemiology and ocular importance. Cornea 2001; 20: 1-13
• 15 Liu S, Pavan-Langston D, Colby KA. Pediatric herpes simplex of the anterior segment: characteristics, treatment, and outcomes. Ophthalmology 2012; 119: 2003-2008
• 16 Ragozzino MW, Melton LJ, Kurland LT et al. Population-based study of herpes zoster and its sequelae. Medicine (Baltimore) 1982; 61: 310-316
• 17 Yawn BP, Wollan PC, St Sauver JL et al. Herpes zoster eye complications: rates and trends. Mayo Clin Proc 2013; 88: 562-570
• 18 Lau CH, Missotten T, Salzmann J et al. Acute retinal necrosis features, management, and outcomes. Ophthalmology 2007; 114: 756-762
• 19 De Freitas D, Martins EN, Adan C et al. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus in otherwise healthy children. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 142: 393-399
• 20 Roesel M, Heiligenhaus A, Messmer EM. Klinik des Zoster Ophthalmicus. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 2010; 227: 370-374
• 21 Chee S, Bacsal K, Jap A et al. Clinical features of cytomegalovirus anterior uveitis in immunocompetent patients. Am J Ophthalmol 2008; 145: 834-840
• 22 Coats DK, Demmler GJ, Paysse EA et al. Ophthalmologic findings in children with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. J AAPOS 2000; 4: 110-116
• 23 Reinhard T, Adams O, Sundmacher R. Detection of the Epstein-Barr virus genome in the anterior chamber of a patient with chronic keratouveitis. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2003; 81: 671-673
• 24 Merayo-Lloves J, Baltatzis S, Foster CS. Epstein-Barr virus dacryoadenitis resulting in keratoconjunctivitis sicca in a child. Am J Ophthalmol 2001; 132: 922-923
• 25 Kramer S, Brummer C, Zierhut M. Epstein-Barr virus associated acute retinal necrosis. Br J Ophthalmol 2001; 85: 114
• 26 Demols PF, Cochaux PM, Velu T et al. Chorioretinal post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder induced by the Epstein-Barr virus. Br J Ophthalmol 2001; 85: 93-95
• 27 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hygiene und Mikrobiologie (DGHM). Leitlinie Mikrobiologische Diagnostik bei Infektionen des Auges (01. 07. 2011).. Im Internet: http://www.awmf.org/leitlinien/detail/ll/067-008.html Stand: 01. 03. 2015
• 28 Arvin AM, Koropchak CM, Wittek AE. Immunologic evidence of reinfection with varicella-zoster virus. J Infect Dis 1983; 148: 200-205
• 29 Bader C, Crumpacker CS, Schnipper LE et al. The natural history of recurrent facial-oral infection with herpes simplex virus. J Infect Dis 1978; 138: 897-905
• 30 Sauerbrei A, Sommer M, Eichhorn U et al. Die Labordiagnose des Herpes zoster: Virologie oder Serologie?. Med Klin (Munich) 2002; 97: 123-127
• 31 Robert P, Liekfeld A, Metzner S et al. Specific antibody production in herpes keratitis: intraocular inflammation and corneal neovascularisation as predicting factors. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2006; 244: 210-215
• 32 De Groot-Mijnes JD, Rothova A, Van Loon AM et al. Polymerase chain reaction and Goldmann-Witmer coefficient analysis are complimentary for the diagnosis of infectious uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 141: 313-318
• 33 Errera M, Goldschmidt P, Batellier L et al. Real-time polymerase chain reaction and intraocular antibody production for the diagnosis of viral versus toxoplasmic infectious posterior uveitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2011; 249: 1837-1846
• 34 Subhan S, Jose RJ, Duggirala A et al. Diagnosis of herpes simplex virus-1 keratitis: comparison of Giemsa stain, immunofluorescence assay and polymerase chain reaction. Curr Eye Res 2004; 29: 209-213
• 35 Farhatullah S, Kaza S, Athmanathan S et al. Diagnosis of herpes simplex virus-1 keratitis using Giemsa stain, immunofluorescence assay, and polymerase chain reaction assay on corneal scrapings. Br J Ophthalmol 2004; 88: 142-144
• 36 El-Aal AM, El Sayed M, Mohammed E et al. Evaluation of herpes simplex detection in corneal scrapings by three molecular methods. Curr Microbiol 2006; 52: 379-382
• 37 Inoue Y, Shimomura Y, Fukuda M et al. Multicentre clinical study of the herpes simplex virus immunochromatographic assay kit for the diagnosis of herpetic epithelial keratitis. Br J Ophthalmol 2013; 97: 1108-1112
• 38 Revere K, Davidson SL. Update on management of herpes keratitis in children. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2013; 24: 343-347
• 39 Kowalski RP, Gordon Y. Evaluation of immunologic tests for the detection of ocular herpes simplex virus. Ophthalmology 1989; 96: 1583-1586
• 40 Kowalski RP, Karenchak LM, Shah C et al. ELVIS: a new 24-hour culture test for detecting herpes simplex virus from ocular samples. Arch Ophthalmol 2002; 120: 960-962
• 41 Athmanathan S, Reddy SB, Nutheti R et al. Comparison of an immortalized human corneal epithelial cell line with Vero cells in the isolation of Herpes simplex virus-1 for the laboratory diagnosis of Herpes simplex keratitis. BMC Ophthalmol 2002; 2: 3
• 42 Huang YT, Hite S, Duane V et al. CV-1 and MRC-5 mixed cells for simultaneous detection of herpes simplex viruses and varicella zoster virus in skin lesions. J Clin Virol 2002; 24: 37-43
• 43 Inoue T, Ohashi Y. Utility of real-time PCR analysis for appropriate diagnosis for keratitis. Cornea 2013; 32 (Suppl. 01) S71-S76
• 44 Chichili GR, Athmanathan S, Farhatullah S et al. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction for the detection of herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus and cytomegalovirus in ocular specimens. Curr Eye Res 2003; 27: 85-90
• 45 Deai T, Fukuda M, Hibino T et al. Herpes simplex virus genome quantification in two patients who developed herpetic epithelial keratitis during treatment with antiglaucoma medications. Cornea 2004; 23: 125-128
• 46 Taravati P, Lam D, Van Gelder RN. Role of molecular diagnostics in ocular microbiology. Curr Ophthalmol Rep 2013; 1: 181-189
• 47 Barrado L, Suarez MJ, Pérez-Blázquez E et al. Could polymerase chain reaction tests on conjunctival swabs be useful to diagnose herpetic keratitis?. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2014; 32: 28-30
• 48 Satpathy G, Mishra AK, Tandon R et al. Evaluation of tear samples for Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV) detection in suspected cases of viral keratitis using PCR assay and conventional laboratory diagnostic tools. Br J Ophthalmol 2011; 95: 415-418
• 49 Kaufman HE, Azcuy AM, Varnell ED et al. HSV-1 DNA in tears and saliva of normal adults. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2005; 46: 241-247
• 50 Leigh JF, Acharya N, Cevallos V et al. Does asymptomatic shedding of herpes simplex virus on the ocular surface lead to false-positive diagnostic PCR results?. Br J Ophthalmol 2008; 92: 435-436
• 51 Hu AY, Strauss EC, Holland GN et al. Late varicella-zoster virus dendriform keratitis in patients with histories of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Am J Ophthalmol 2010; 149: 214-220.e3
• 52 Kandori M, Inoue T, Takamatsu F et al. Prevalence and features of keratitis with quantitative polymerase chain reaction positive for cytomegalovirus. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 216-222
• 53 Markomichelakis NN, Canakis C, Zafirakis P et al. Cytomegalovirus as a cause of anterior uveitis with sectoral iris atrophy. Ophthalmology 2002; 109: 879-882
• 54 Van Gelder RN. Idiopathic no more: clues to the pathogenesis of Fuchs heterochromic iridocyclitis and glaucomatocyclitic crisis. Am J Ophthalmol 2008; 145: 769-771
• 55 Chee S, Jap A. Presumed fuchs heterochromic iridocyclitis and Posner-Schlossman syndrome: comparison of cytomegalovirus-positive and negative eyes. Am J Ophthalmol 2008; 146: 883-889.e1
• 56 Harper TW, Miller D, Schiffman JC et al. Polymerase chain reaction analysis of aqueous and vitreous specimens in the diagnosis of posterior segment infectious uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol 2009; 147: 140-147.e2
• 57 Davis JL. Diagnostic dilemmas in retinitis and endophthalmitis. Eye (Lond) 2012; 26: 194-201
• 58 Sugita S, Shimizu N, Watanabe K et al. Use of multiplex PCR and real-time PCR to detect human herpes virus genome in ocular fluids of patients with uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol 2008; 92: 928-932
• 59 Kanavi MR, Javadi M, Yazdani S et al. Sensitivity and specificity of confocal scan in the diagnosis of infectious keratitis. Cornea 2007; 26: 782-786
• 60 Hillenaar T, van Cleynenbreugel H, Verjans GM et al. Monitoring the inflammatory process in herpetic stromal keratitis: the role of in vivo confocal microscopy. Ophthalmology 2012; 119: 1102-1110
• 61 Yeh S, Fahle G, Forooghian F et al. Polymerase chain reaction-based ganciclovir resistance testing of ocular fluids for cytomegalovirus retinitis. Arch Ophthalmol 2012; 130: 113-115
• 62 Umene K, Inoue T, Inoue Y et al. Genotyping of herpes simplex virus type 1 strains isolated from ocular materials of patients with herpetic keratitis. J Med Virol 2003; 71: 75-81
• 63 Duan R, van Dun JM, Remeijer L et al. Prevalence of herpes simplex virus type 1 glycoprotein G (gG) and gI genotypes in patients with herpetic keratitis. Br J Ophthalmol 2008; 92: 1195-1200
• 64 Seitzman GD, Cevallos V, Margolis TP. Rose bengal and lissamine green inhibit detection of herpes simplex virus by PCR. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 141: 756-758
• 65 Goldschmidt P, Rostane H, Saint-Jean C et al. Effects of topical anaesthetics and fluorescein on the real-time PCR used for the diagnosis of Herpesviruses and Acanthamoeba keratitis. Br J Ophthalmol 2006; 90: 1354-1356
• 66 Pasternak B, Hviid A. Use of acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famciclovir in the first trimester of pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. JAMA 2010; 304: 859-866
• 67 Mackensen F, Paulus WE, Max R et al. Ocular changes during pregnancy. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2014; 111: 567-575
• 68 Luck S, Sharland M, Griffiths P et al. Advances in the antiviral therapy of herpes virus infection in children. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2006; 4: 1005-1020
• 69 Seitz B, Heiligenhaus A. „Herpeskeratitis“. Ophthalmologe 2011; 108: 385-398
• 70 Wilhelmus KR. Antiviral treatment and other therapeutic interventions for herpes simplex virus epithelial keratitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (1) CD002898
• 71 White ML, Chodosh J. Herpes simplex virus keratitis: a treatment guideline (Jun 2014).. Im Internet: http://www.aao.org/clinical-statement/herpes-simplex-virus-keratitis-treatment-guideline Stand: 28.11.2014
• 72 Choong K, Walker NJ, Apel AJ et al. Aciclovir-resistant herpes keratitis. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2010; 38: 309-313
• 73 Duan R, de Vries RD, Osterhaus AD. et al. Acyclovir-resistant corneal HSV-1 isolates from patients with herpetic keratitis. J Infect Dis 2008; 198: 659-663
• 74 Sozen E, Avunduk AM, Akyol N. Comparison of efficacy of oral valacyclovir and topical acyclovir in the treatment of herpes simplex keratitis: a randomized clinical trial. Chemotherapy 2006; 52: 29-31
• 75 Tappeiner C, Heiligenhaus A. Keratitis durch Herpes-simplex- und Varizella-zoster-Virus. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 2014; 231: 79-95
• 76 Barron BA, Gee L, Hauck WW et al. Herpetic Eye Disease Study. A controlled trial of oral acyclovir for herpes simplex stromal keratitis. Ophthalmology 1994; 101: 1871-1882
• 77 Rowe A, St Leger A, Jeon S et al. Herpes keratitis. Prog Retin Eye Res 2013; 32: 88-101
• 78 Wilhelmus KR, Gee L, Hauck WW et al. Herpetic Eye Disease Study. A controlled trial of topical corticosteroids for herpes simplex stromal keratitis. Ophthalmology 1994; 101: 1883-1895
• 79 Knickelbein JE, Hendricks RL, Charukamnoetkanok P. Management of herpes simplex virus stromal keratitis: an evidence-based review. Surv Ophthalmol 2009; 54: 226-234
• 80 McGhee CN, Dean S, Danesh-Meyer H. Locally administered ocular corticosteroids: benefits and risks. Drug Saf 2002; 25: 33-55
• 81 Kaye S, Choudhary A. Herpes simplex keratitis. Prog Retin Eye Res 2006; 25: 355-380
• 82 Herpetic Eye Disease Study Group. Oral acyclovir for herpes simplex virus eye disease: effect on prevention of epithelial keratitis and stromal keratitis. Arch Ophthalmol 2000; 118: 1030-1036
• 83 Uchoa UB, Rezende RA, Carrasco MA et al. Long-term acyclovir use to prevent recurrent ocular herpes simplex virus infection. Arch Ophthalmol 2003; 121: 1702-1704
• 84 Wu X, Chen X. Acyclovir for the treatment and prevention of recurrent infectious herpes simplex keratitis. Chin Med J (Engl) 2002; 115: 1569-1572
• 85 de la Parra-Colin P, Garza-Leon M, Ortiz-Nieva G et al. Oral antivirals for preventing recurrence of herpes simplex virus keratitis.. Im Internet: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010556/pdf Stand: 21.04.2015
• 86 Van Velzen M, van de Vijver DA, van Loenen FB et al. Acyclovir prophylaxis predisposes to antiviral-resistant recurrent herpetic keratitis. J Infect Dis 2013; 208: 1359-1365
• 87 Schwartz GS, Holland EJ. Oral acyclovir for the management of herpes simplex virus keratitis in children. Ophthalmology 2000; 107: 278-282
• 88 Lairson DR, Begley CE, Reynolds TF et al. Prevention of herpes simplex virus eye disease: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Arch Ophthalmol 2003; 121: 108-112
• 89 Miserocchi E, Modorati G, Galli L et al. Efficacy of valacyclovir vs. acyclovir for the prevention of recurrent herpes simplex virus eye disease: a pilot study. Am J Ophthalmol 2007; 144: 547-551.e1
• 90 Moyes AL. Antiviral therapy after penetrating keratoplasty for herpes simplex keratitis. Arch Ophthalmol 1994; 112: 601
• 91 Ghosh S, Jhanji V, Lamoureux E et al. Acyclovir therapy in prevention of recurrent herpetic keratitis following penetrating keratoplasty. Am J Ophthalmol 2008; 145: 198-202.e2
• 92 Zheng X, Yamaguchi M, Goto T et al. Experimental corneal endotheliitis in rabbit. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000; 41: 377-385
• 93 Porter SM, Patterson A, Kho P. A comparison of local and systemic acyclovir in the management of herpetic disciform keratitis. Br J Ophthalmol 1990; 74: 283-285
• 94 The Herpetic Eye Disease Study Group. A controlled trial of oral acyclovir for iridocyclitis caused by herpes simplex virus. Arch Ophthalmol 1996; 114: 1065-1072
• 95 Cunningham ET. Diagnosing and treating herpetic anterior uveitis. Ophthalmology 2000; 107: 2129-2130
• 96 Siverio Júnior CD, Imai Y, Cunningham jr. ET. Diagnosis and management of herpetic anterior uveitis. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2002; 42: 43-48
• 97 Muthiah MN, Michaelides M, Child CS et al. Acute retinal necrosis: a national population-based study to assess the incidence, methods of diagnosis, treatment strategies and outcomes in the UK. Br J Ophthalmol 2007; 91: 1452-1455
• 98 Palay DA, Sternberg P, Davis J et al. Decrease in the risk of bilateral acute retinal necrosis by acyclovir therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 1991; 112: 250-255
• 99 Pleyer U, Winterhalter S. Diagnostik und Therapie der Herpesvirus-assoziierten Uveitis. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 2010; 227: 407-412
• 100 Kawaguchi T, Spencer DB, Mochizuki M. Therapy for acute retinal necrosis. Semin Ophthalmol 2008; 23: 285-290
• 101 Tibbetts MD, Shah CP, Young LH et al. Treatment of acute retinal necrosis. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 818-824
• 102 Chong DY, Johnson MW, Huynh TH et al. Vitreous penetration of orally administered famciclovir. Am J Ophthalmol 2009; 148: 38-42.e1
• 103 Pivetti-Pezzi P, Accorinti M, Colabelli-Gisoldi RA et al. Herpes simplex virus vaccine in recurrent herpetic ocular infection. Cornea 1999; 18: 47-51
• 104 Belshe RB, Leone PA, Bernstein DI et al. Efficacy results of a trial of a herpes simplex vaccine. N Engl J Med 2012; 366: 34-43
• 105 Pepose JS, Keadle TL, Morrison LA. Ocular herpes simplex: changing epidemiology, emerging disease patterns, and the potential of vaccine prevention and therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 141: 547-557.e2
• 106 Mulik S, Bhela S, Rouse BT. Potential function of miRNAs in herpetic stromal keratitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2013; 54: 563-573
• 107 Kim B, Tang Q, Biswas PS et al. Inhibition of ocular angiogenesis by siRNA targeting vascular endothelial growth factor pathway genes: therapeutic strategy for herpetic stromal keratitis. Am J Pathol 2004; 165: 2177-2185
• 108 Elbadawy HM, Gailledrat M, Desseaux C et al. Targeting herpetic keratitis by gene therapy. J Ophthalmol 2012; 2012: 1-14
• 109 Hoang-Xuan T, Büchi ER, Herbort CP et al. Oral acyclovir for herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 1992; 99: 1062-1070
• 110 Neoh C, Harding SP, Saunders D et al. Comparison of topical and oral acyclovir in early herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Eye (Lond) 1994; 8: 688-691
• 111 Colin J, Prisant O, Cochener B et al. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of valaciclovir and acyclovir for the treatment of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 2000; 107: 1507-1511
• 112 Tyring S. Famciclovir for ophthalmic zoster: a randomised aciclovir controlled study. Br J Ophthalmol 2001; 85: 576-581
• 113 Pavan-Langston D. Herpes zoster: antivirals and pain management. Ophthalmology 2008; 115 (2 Suppl.) S13-S20
• 114 Karbassi M, Raizman MB, Schuman JS. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Surv Ophthalmol 1992; 36: 395-410
• 115 Mahn F, Baron R. Postzosterische Neuralgie. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 2010; 227: 379-383
• 116 Wood MJ, Johnson RW, McKendrick MW et al. A randomized trial of acyclovir for 7 days or 21 days with and without prednisolone for treatment of acute herpes zoster. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 896-900
• 117 Whitley RJ, Weiss H, Gnann JW et al. Acyclovir with and without prednisone for the treatment of herpes zoster. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1996; 125: 376-383
• 118 Miserocchi E, Waheed NK, Dios E et al. Visual outcome in herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus uveitis: a clinical evaluation and comparison. Ophthalmology 2002; 109: 1532-1537
• 119 Savant V, Saeed T, Denniston A et al. Oral valganciclovir treatment of varicella zoster virus acute retinal necrosis. Eye (Lond) 2004; 18: 544-545
• 120 Vij O, Bornfeld N, Roggendorf M et al. Brivudin als alternative systemische Therapie zu Aciclovir und Ganciclovir bei akutem retinalen Nekrosesyndrom durch Varizella-Zoster-Virus. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 2003; 220: 710-715
• 121 Holland GN. The progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome. Int Ophthalmol 1994; 18: 163-165
• 122 Austin RB. Progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome: a comprehensive review of its clinical presentation, relationship to immune system status, and management. Clin Eye Vis Care 2000; 12: 119-129
• 123 Gore DM, Gore SK, Visser L. Progressive outer retinal necrosis: outcomes in the intravitreal era. Arch Ophthalmol 2012; 130: 700-706
• 124 Scott IU, Luu KM, Davis JL. Intravitreal antivirals in the management of patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome with progressive outer retinal necrosis. Arch Ophthalmol 2002; 120: 1219-1222
• 125 Siedler A, Hecht J, Rieck T et al. Die Varizellenimpfung in Deutschland. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2013; 56: 1313-1320
• 126 Gupta S, Vemulakonda G, Suhler EB et al. Cytomegalovirus retinitis in the absence of AIDS. Can J Ophthalmol 2013; 48: 126-129
• 127 Stewart MW. Optimal management of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Ophthalmol 2010; 4: 285-299
• 128 Martin DF, Sierra-Madero J, Walmsley S et al. A controlled trial of valganciclovir as induction therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1119-1126
• 129 Jabs DA, Ahuja A, Van Natta M et al. Comparison of treatment regimens for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Ophthalmology 2013; 120: 1262-1270
• 130 Cassoux N, Bodaghi B, Katlama C et al. CMV retinitis in the era of HAART. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 1999; 7: 231-235
• 131 Karavellas MP, Plummer DJ, Macdonald JC et al. Incidence of immune recovery vitritis in cytomegalovirus retinitis patients following institution of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 1999; 179: 697-700
• 132 Chee S, Jap A. Cytomegalovirus anterior uveitis: outcome of treatment. Br J Ophthalmol 2010; 94: 1648-1652
• 133 Chee S, Jap A. Treatment outcome and risk factors for visual loss in Cytomegalovirus endotheliitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2012; 250: 383-389
• 134 Torre D, Tambini R. Acyclovir for treatment of infectious mononucleosis: a meta-analysis. Scand J Infect Dis 1999; 31: 543-547
• 135 Rafailidis PI, Mavros MN, Kapaskelis A et al. Antiviral treatment for severe EBV infections in apparently immunocompetent patients. J Clin Virol 2010; 49: 151-157