ABSTRACT
Fibrin D-dimer, the most commonly used clinical assay for detection of coagulation
activation and in vivo fibrin formation and lysis in circulating blood, has been associated
with risks of cardiovascular diseases in studies published over the past 15 years.
This review discusses, in turn, analytic and preanalytic considerations; associations
with risk factors; and associations with coronary heart disease, atrial fibrillation,
stroke and cerebrovascular disease, peripheral arterial disease, and venous thromboembolism.
These associations suggest that activated coagulation and in vivo fibrin formation
and lysis may play a role in arterial, intracardiac, and venous thromboembolism. The
potential clinical utility of D-dimer in prediction of cardiovascular risk, in indicating
patient groups for prophylactic anticoagulation and in monitoring of anticoagulation,
requires further study. Harmonization of results from different assays would increase
clinical utility.
KEYWORDS
Coagulation - fibrinolysis - fibrin degradation products - thrombosis - coronary heart
disease - atrial fibrillation - stroke - peripheral arterial disease - epidemiology.
REFERENCES
- 1
Rylatt D B, Blake A S, Cottis L E et al..
An immunoassay for human D-dimer using monoclonal antibodies.
Thromb Res.
1983;
31
767-778
- 2
Hillyard C J, Blake A S, Wilson K et al..
A latex agglutination assay for D-dimer: evaluation and application to the diagnosis
of thrombotic disease.
Clin Chem.
1987;
33
1837-1840
- 3
Bick R L, Baker W F.
Diagnostic efficacy of the D-dimer assay in disseminated intravascular coagulation.
Thromb Res.
1992;
65
785-790
- 4
Knecht M F, Heinrich F, Spanuth E.
Evaluation of plasma D-dimer in diagnosis and in the course of fibrinolytic therapy
of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.
Thromb Res.
1992;
67
213-220
- 5 Douglas J T, Lowe G D, Balendra R et al..
Prognostic significance of fibrinogen derivatives in acute stroke. In: Lowe GD, Douglas JT, Forbes CD, Henschen A Fibrinogen 2: Biochemistry, Physiology
and Clinical Relevance. Amsterdam; Elsevier 1987: 241-244
- 6
Al-Zahrani H, Lowe G D, Douglas J T, Cuschieri R, Pollock J G, Smith WCS.
Increased fibrin turnover in peripheral arterial disease: comparison with a population
study.
Clin Hemorheol.
1992;
12
867-872
- 7
Fowkes FGR, Lowe G D, Housley E et al..
Cross-linked fibrin degradation products, progression of peripheral arterial disease,
and risk of coronary heart disease.
Lancet.
1993;
342
84-86
- 8
Lip G Y, Lowe G D.
Fibrin D-dimer: a useful clinical marker of thrombogenesis?.
Clin Sci.
1995;
89
205-214
- 9 Lowe G D.
Haemostatic risk factors for arterial and venous thrombosis. In: Poller L, Ludlam CA Recent Advances in Blood Coagulation, 7. Edinburgh; Churchill
Livingstone 1997: 69-96
- 10
Lowe G D, Rumley A.
Use of fibrinogen and fibrin D-dimer in prediction of arterial thrombotic events.
Thromb Haemost.
1999;
82
667-672
- 11
Gaffney P J, Edgell T, Creighton Kempsford L J, Wheeler S, Tarelli E.
Fibrin degradation product (FnDP) assays: analysis of standardisation issues and target
antigens in plasma.
Br J Haematol.
1995;
90
187-194
- 12
Dempfle C-E, Zips S, Ergul H, Heene D L.
FACT study group. The fibrin assay comparison trial (FACT): correlation of soluble
fibrin assays with D-dimer.
Thromb Haemost.
2001;
86
1204-1209
- 13
McEntegert A, Capell H A, Crean D, Rumley A, Woodward M, Lowe G D.
Cardiovascular risk factors, including thrombotic variables, in a population with
rheumatoid arthritis.
J Rheumatol.
2001;
40
640-644
- 14
So A K, Varisco P-A, Kemkes-Matthes B et al..
Arthritis is linked to local and systemic activation of coagulation and fibrinolysis
pathways.
J Thromb Haemost.
2003;
1
2510-2515
- 15
Danesh J, Whincup P, Walker M et al..
Fibrin D-dimer and coronary heart disease: prospective study and meta-analysis.
Circulation.
2001;
103
2323-2327
- 16
Smith F B, Lee A J, Fowkes FGR, Price J F, Rumley A, Lowe G D.
Haemostatic factors as predictors of ischaemic heart disease and stroke in the Edinburgh
Artery Study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
1997;
17
3321-3325
- 17
Stott D J, Spilg E, Campbell A M, Rumley A, Mansoor M A, Lowe G D.
Haemostasis in ischaemic stroke and vascular dementia.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
2001;
12
651-657
- 18
Woodburn K R, Rumley A, Lowe G D, Love J G, Murray G D, Pollock J G.
Clinical, biochemical and rheologic factors affecting the outcome of infrainguinal
bypass grafting.
J Vasc Surg.
1996;
24
639-646
- 19
Mamode N, Docherty G, Lowe G D et al..
The role of myocardial perfusion scanning, heart rate variability and D-dimers in
predicting the risk of perioperative cardiac complications after peripheral vascular
surgery.
Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg.
2001;
22
499-508
- 20
Lowe G D, Woodward M, Vessey M P, Rumley A, Gough P, Daly E.
Thrombotic variables and risk of idiopathic venous thromboembolism in women aged 45-64
years: relationships to hormone replacement therapy.
Thromb Haemost.
2000;
83
530-535
- 21
Freyburger G, Trillaud H, Labrouche S et al..
D-dimer strategy in thrombosis exclusion. A gold standard study in 100 patients suspected
of venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism: 8 DD methods compared.
Thromb Haemost.
1998;
79
32-37
- 22
Dempfle C E, Zips S, Ergul H.
Heene DL and the FACT study group. The fibrin assay comparison trial (FACT): Evaluation
of 23 quantitative D-dimer assays as basis for the development of D-dimer calibrators.
Thromb Haemost.
2001;
85
671-678
- 23
Hart R, Bate I, Din D et al..
The detection of D-dimer in plasma by enzyme immunoassay: improved discrimination
is obtained with a more specific signal antibody.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
1994;
5
227-232
- 24
Lowe G D, Yarnell JWG, Sweetnam P M, Rumley A, Thomas H F, Elwood P C.
Fibrin D-dimer, tissue plasminogen activator, plasminogen activator inhibitor, and
the risk of major ischaemic heart disease in the Caerphilly Study.
Thromb Haemost.
1998;
79
129-133
- 25
Lowe G D, Rumley A, Sweetnam P, Yarnell JWG, Rumley J.
Fibrin D-dimer, markers of coagulation activation and the risk of major ischaemic
heart disease in the Caerphilly Study.
Thromb Haemost.
2001;
86
822-827
- 26
Yarnell J W, Sweetnam P M, Rumley A, Lowe G D.
Lifestyle and hemostatic risk factors for IHD: the Caerphilly study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
2000;
20
271-279
- 27
Yarnell JWG, Sweetnam P M, Rumley A, Lowe G D.
Lifestyle factors and coagulation activation markers: the Caerphilly study.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
2001;
12
721-728
- 28
Lowe G D, Haverkate F, Thompson S G on behalf of the ECAT DVT Study Group et al,.
Prediction of deep vein thrombosis after elective hip replacement surgery by preoperative
clinical and haemostatic variables: the ECAT DVT Study.
Thromb Haemost.
1999;
81
879-886
- 29
Moss A J, Goldstein R E, Marder V J et al..
Thrombogenic factors and recurrent coronary events.
Circulation.
1999;
99
2517-2522
- 30
Marder V J, Zareba W, Horan J T, Moss A J, Kanouse J J.
Automated latex agglutination and ELISA testing yield equivalent D-dimer results in
patients with recent myocardial infarction.
Thromb Haemost.
1999;
82
1412-1416
- 31
Poorhang E, Rumley A, Lowe G D.
The influence of pre-analytical variables on haemostatic and inflammatory predictors
of cardiovascular risk.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
2005;
, In press
- 32
Yarnell J, McCrum E, Rumley A et al..
Association of European population levels of thrombotic and inflammatory factors with
risk of coronary heart disease: the MONICA optional haemostasis study.
Eur Heart J.
2005;
26
332-342
- 33 Rumley A. Fibrinolytic and endothelial markers in cardiovascular disease and diabetes
mellitus. PhD Thesis, University of Glasgow 1996
- 34
Emberson J, Whincup P, Morris R, Walker M, Lowe G D, Rumley A.
Extent of regression dilution for established and novel coronary risk factors: results
from the British Regional Heart Study.
Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil.
2004;
11
125-134
- 35
Ariens RAS, de Lange M, Freeder H, Boothby M, Spector T D, Grant P D.
Activation markers of coagulation and fibrinolysis in twins: heritability of the prethrombotic
state.
Lancet.
2002;
359
667-671
- 36
Banfield E, Lowe G D, Rumley A, Connell JMC.
Associations between heritabilities of fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor, tissue plasminogen
activator and fibrin D-dimer in a Scottish Adult Twin Study.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
2005;
, In press
- 37
Lee A J, Fowkes FGR, Lowe G D, Rumley A.
Determinants of fibrin D-dimer in the Edinburgh Artery Study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
1995;
15
1094-1097
- 38
Rumley A, McConnachie A, Upton M, O'Reilly D, Watt G, Lowe G.
Effects of age, sex and oral contraceptive use on hemostatic, fibrinolytic and inflammatory
variables: cross-sectional population survey.
J Thromb Haemost.
2003;
1(Suppl 1)
, abstract P0867
- 39
Rumley A, McConnachie A, Upton M, Watt G.
Association of hemostatic and inflammatory variables with obesity and blood pressure
in men and women aged 3-59 years: cross-sectional population survey.
J Thromb Haemost.
2003;
1(Suppl 1)
, abstract P1830
- 40
Lowe G D, Yarnell JWG, Rumley A, Bainton D, Sweetnam P M.
C-reactive protein, fibrin D-dimer, and incident ischemic heart disease in the Speedwell
Study. Are inflammation and fibrin turnover linked in pathogenesis?.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
2001;
21
603-610
- 41
Lowe G D, Rumley A, McMahon A D, Ford I, O'Reilly D, Packard C J. For the West of
Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group .
Interleukin-6, fibrin D-dimer, and coagulation factors VII and XIIa in prediction
of coronary heart disease.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
2004;
24
1529-1534
- 42
Lowe G D, Sweetnam P M, Yarnell J W, Rumley A, Bainton D, Ben-Shlomo Y.
C-reactive protein, fibrin D-dimer, and risk of ischaemic heart disease: the Caerphilly
and Speedwell studies.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
2004;
24
1957-1962
- 43
Cushman M, Lemaitre R, Kuller L et al..
Fibrinolytic activation markers predict myocardial infarction in the elderly: the
cardiovascular health study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
1999;
19
493-498
- 44
Ridker P M, Hennekens C H, Cerskus A et al..
Plasma concentration of cross-linked fibrin degradation product (D-dimer) and the
risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men.
Circulation.
1994;
90
2236-2240
- 45
McDermott M M, Green D, Greenland P et al..
Relation of levels of hemostatic factors and inflammatory markers to the ankle brachial
index.
Am J Cardiol.
2003;
92
194-199
- 46
Cushman M, Folsom A R, Wong L et al..
Fibrin fragment D-dimer and the risk of future venous thrombosis.
Blood.
2003;
101
1243-1248
- 47
Giansante C, Fiotti N, Cattin L, Da Col P G, Calabrese S.
Fibrinogen, D-dimer and thrombin-antithrombin complexes in a random population sample:
relationships with other cardiovascular risk factors.
Thromb Haemost.
1994;
71
581-586
- 48
Koenig W, Rothenbacher D, Hoffmeister A, Griesshammer M, Brenner H.
Plasma fibrin D-dimer levels and risk of stable coronary artery disease: results of
a large case-control study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
2001;
21
1701-1705
- 49
Folsom A R, Aleksic N, Park E, Salomaa V, Juneja H, Wu K K.
Prospective study of fibrinolytic factors and incident coronary heart disease: the
Atherosclerosis in Communities (ARIC) Study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
2001;
21
611-617
- 50
Kluft C, Lansink M.
Effect of oral contraceptives on haemostasis variables.
Thromb Haemost.
1997;
78
315-326
- 51
Lowe G D.
Hormone replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease: increased risks of venous
thromboembolism and stroke, and no protection from coronary heart disease.
J Intern Med.
2004;
256
361-374
- 52
Wannamethee S G, Lowe G D, Shaper A G, Rumley A, Lennon L, Whincup P H.
Association between cigarette smoking, pipe/cigar smoking, and smoking cessation,
and haemostatic and inflammatory markers for cardiovascular disease.
Eur Heart J.
2005;
26
1765-1773
- 53
Wannamethee S G, Lowe G D, Whincup P H, Rumley A, Walker M, Lennon L.
Physical activity and hemostatic and inflammatory variables in elderly men.
Circulation.
2002;
105
1785-1790
- 54
Wannamethee S G, Lowe G D, Shaper A G, Rumley A, Lennon L, Whincup P H.
The metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance: relationship to haemostatic and inflammatory
markers in older non-diabetic men.
Atherosclerosis.
2005;
181
101-108
- 55
Wannamethee S G, Lowe G D, Shaper A G, Rumley A, Lennon L, Whincup P H.
Insulin resistance, haemostatic and inflammatory markers and coronary heart disease
risk factors in type 2 diabetes with and without coronary heart disease.
Diabetologia.
2004;
47
1557-1565
- 56
Lip G Y, Beevers D G.
Abnormalities of rheology and coagulation in hypertension.
J Hum Hypertens.
1994;
8
693-702
- 57
Landin K, Tengborn L, Smith U.
Elevated fibrinogen and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) in hypertension are
related to metabolic risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
J Intern Med.
1990;
227
273-278
- 58
van Wersch J W, Rompelberg-Lahaye J, Lustermans F A.
Plasma concentrations of coagulation and fibrinolysis factors and platelet function
in hypertension.
Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem.
1991;
29
375-379
- 59
Donders S H, Lustermans F A, van Wersch J W.
Fibrinolysis factors and lipid composition of the blood in treated and untreated hypertensive
patients.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
1992;
3
61-67
- 60
Vaziri N D, Smith D H, Winer R L, Weber M A, Gonzales E C, Neutel J M.
Coagulation and inhibitory and fibrinolytic proteins in essential hypertension.
J Am Soc Nephrol.
1993;
4
222-228
- 61
Wannamethee S G, Lowe G D, Shaper A G et al..
The effects of different alcoholic drinks on lipids, insulin and haemostatic and inflammatory
markers in older men.
Thromb Haemost.
2003;
90
1080-1087
- 62
Lip G Y, Lowe G D, Rumley A, Dunn F G.
Increased markers of thrombogenesis in chronic atrial fibrillation: effects of warfarin
therapy.
Br Heart J.
1995;
73
527-533
- 63
Lip G Y, Zafiris J, Watson RDS, Bareford D, Lowe G D, Beevers D G.
Fibrin D-dimer and β-thromboglobulin as markers of thrombogenesis and platelet activation
in atrial fibrillation. Effects of introducing ultra-low-dose warfarin and aspirin.
Circulation.
1996;
94
425-431
- 64
Tait R C, Murdoch D L, O'Neill K F et al..
Fibrin D-dimer is an independent predictor of future stroke in patients with atrial
fibrillation.
Circulation.
2003;
108(Suppl IV)
787
- 65
Lip G Y, Lowe G D, Metcalfe M J, Rumley A, Dunn F G.
Effect of warfarin therapy on plasma fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor and fibrin
D-dimer in left ventricular dysfunction secondary to coronary artery disease with
and without aneurysms.
Am J Cardiol.
1995;
76
453-458
- 66
MacCallum P K, Rudnicka A R, Rumley A, Meade T W, Lowe G D.
Low-intensity warfarin reduces thrombin generation and fibrin turnover, but not low-grade
inflammation, in men at risk of myocardial infarction.
Br J Haematol.
2004;
127
448-450
- 67
Robson S C, Shephard E G, Kirsch R E.
Fibrin degradation product D-dimer induces the synthesis and release of biologically
active IL-1β, IL-6 and plasminogen activator inhibitors from monocytes in vitro
.
Br J Haematol.
1994;
86
322-326
- 68
Cortellaro M, Cofrancesco E, Boschetti C For the PLAT Group et al..
Increased fibrin turnover and high PAI-1 activity as predictors of ischemic events
in atherosclerotic patients: a case-control study.
Arterioscler Thromb.
1993;
13
1412-1417
- 69
Grant P J, Miller G J, Cooper J A, Bauer K A, Rosenberg R D.
Elevated tissue plasminogen activator and D-dimer concentrations precede myocardial
infarction in a healthy cohort of middle-aged males (Northwick Park Study II).
Thromb Haemost.
1999;
(Suppl)
447
, (abstract 1413)
- 70
Smith A, Lowe G, Rumley A, Patterson C, Ben-Shlomo Y, Yarnell J.
Which haemostatic variables add to the prediction of cardiovascular events by conventional
risk factors? The Caerphilly study.
Circulation.
2005;
, In press
- 71
Danesh J, Wheeler J G, Hirshfield G M et al..
C-reactive protein and other circulating markers of inflammation in the prediction
of coronary heart disease.
N Engl J Med.
2004;
350
1387-1397
- 72
Fibrinogen Studies Collaboration .
Collaborative meta-analysis of prospective observational studies of plasma fibrinogen
and cardiovascular disease.
Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil.
2004;
11
9-17
- 73
van der Bom J G, Bots M L, Haverkate F et al..
Activation products of the haemostatic system in coronary, cerebrovascular and peripheral
arterial disease.
Thromb Haemost.
2001;
85
234-239
- 74
Lowe G D, Wannamethee G, Rumley A, Walker M, Lennon L, Whincup P.
Associations of hemostatic and inflammatory variables with prevalent myocardial infarction
and stroke in British men: British Regional Heart Study.
J Thromb Haemost.
2003;
1(Suppl 1)
, abstract OCO39
- 75
Tataru M-C, Heinrich J, Junker R et al..
D-dimers in relation to the severity of arteriosclerosis in patients with stable angina
pectoris after myocardial infarction.
Eur Heart J.
1999;
20
1493-1502
- 76
Alexopoulos D, Ambrose J A, Stump D et al..
Thrombosis-related markers in unstable angina pectoris.
J Am Coll Cardiol.
1991;
17
866-871
- 77
Vaziri N D, Kennedy S C, Kennedy D, Gonzales E.
Coagulation, fibrinolytic and inhibitor proteins in acute myocardial infarction.
Am J Med.
1992;
93
651-657
- 78
Rowbotham B J, Whitaker A N, Bett J D et al..
Clinical applications of the measurement of cross-linked fibrin degradation products
following myocardial infarction.
Thromb Haemost.
1987;
58
231
- 79
Francis C W, Connaghan D G, Scott W, Marder V J.
Increased plasma concentration of cross-linked fibrin polymers in acute myocardial
infarction.
Circulation.
1987;
75
1170-1177
- 80
Eisenberg P R, Sherman L A, Perez J, Jaffe A S.
Relationship between elevated plasma levels of crosslinked fibrin degradation products
(XL-FDP) and the clinical presentation of patients with myocardial infarction.
Thromb Res.
1987;
46
109-120
- 81
Ho C H, Wang S P.
Serial thrombolysis-related changes after thrombolytic therapy with tPA in patients
with acute myocardial infarction.
Thromb Res.
1990;
58
331-341
- 82
Brenner B, Francis C W, Fitzpatrick P G et al..
Relation of plasma D-dimer concentrations to coronary artery reperfusion before and
after thrombolytic treatment in patients with acute myocardial infarction.
Am J Cardiol.
1989;
63
1179-1184
- 83
Douglas J T, Eisenberg P R.
Characterisation of cross-linked fibrin degradation products in patients treated with
fibrinolytic agents.
Fibrinolysis.
1993;
7(Suppl 2)
28-31
- 84
Gulba D C, Westhoff-Bleck M, Jost S et al..
Increased thrombin levels during thrombolytic therapy in acute myocardial infarction.
Circulation.
1991;
83
937-944
- 85
Gron B, Bennick A, Nieuwenhuizen W, Brosstad F.
Normal and fibrinaemic patient plasma contain high molecular weight cross-linked fibrin(ogen)
derivatives with intact fibrinopeptide A.
Thromb Res.
1990;
57
259-270
- 86 Lowe G D, Rumley A.
Laboratory aspects of thrombolytic therapy. In: Thompson JM Blood Coagulation and Haemostasis: A Practical Guide. Edinburgh;
Churchill Livingstone 1992: 177-208
- 87
Ring M E, Vecchoine J J, Fiore L D et al..
Detection of intracoronary fibrin degradation after coronary balloon angioplasty.
Am J Cardiol.
1991;
67
1330-1334
- 88
Jafri S M, Ozawa T, Mammen E, Levine T B, Johnson C, Goldstein S.
Platelet function, thrombin and fibrinolytic activity in patients with heart failure.
Eur Heart J.
1993;
14
205-212
- 89
Lip G Y, Lowe G D, Metcalfe M J, Rumley A, Dunn F G.
Is diastolic dysfunction associated with thrombogenesis? A study of circulating markers
of a prothrombotic state in patients with coronary artery disease.
Int J Cardiol.
1995;
50
31-42
- 90
Albers G W.
Atrial fibrillation and stroke.
Arch Intern Med.
1994;
154
1443-1448
- 91
Kumagai K, Fukunami M, Kitabatake A, Kamada T, Hoki N.
Increased cardiovascular clotting in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation.
J Am Coll Cardiol.
1990;
16
377-380
- 92
Lip G Y, Lowe G D, Rumley A, Dunn F G.
Fibrinogen and fibrin D-dimer levels in paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: evidence for
intermediate elevated levels of intravascular thrombogenesis.
Am Heart J.
1996;
131
724-730
- 93
Lip G Y, Rumley A, Dunn F G, Lowe G D.
Plasma fibrinogen and fibrin D-dimer in patients with atrial fibrillation: effects
of cardioversion to sinus rhythm.
Int J Cardiol.
1995;
51
245-251
- 94
Atrial Fibrillation Investigators .
Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic treatment in atrial fibrillation:
analysis of pooled data from randomised controlled trials.
Arch Intern Med.
1994;
154
1449-1457
- 95
Heppel R M, Berkin K E, McLenachan J M, Davies J A.
Haemostatic and haemodynamic abnormalities associated with left atrial thrombosis
in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation.
Heart.
1997;
77
407-411
- 96
Vene N, Mavri A, Kosmelj K, Stegnar M.
High D-dimer levels predict cardiovascular events in patients with chronic atrial
fibrillation during oral anticoagulant therapy.
Thromb Haemost.
2003;
90
1163-1172
- 97
Barber M, Tait R C, Scott J, Rumley A, Lowe G D, Stott D J.
Dementia in subjects with atrial fibrillation: hemostatic function and the role of
anticoagulation.
J Thromb Haemost.
2004;
2
1873-1881
- 98
Fon E A, Mackey A, Cote R et al..
Hemostatic markers in acute transient ischaemic attacks.
Stroke.
1994;
25
282-286
- 99
Gaines K J, Chesney C, Van der Zwaag R, Cape C.
Racial difference in coagulation studies in stroke.
Neurol Res.
1992;
14(2 Suppl)
103-108
- 100
Feinberg W M, Bruck D C, Ring M E, Corrigan J J.
Hemostatic markers in acute stroke.
Stroke.
1989;
20
592-597
- 101
Tohgi H, Kawashima M, Tamura K, Suzuki H.
Coagulation-fibrinolysis abnormalities in acute and chronic phases of cerebral thrombosis
and embolism.
Stroke.
1990;
21
1663-1667
- 102
Fisher M, Francis R.
Altered coagulation in cerebral ischaemia. Platelet, thrombin and plasmin activity.
Arch Neurol.
1990;
47
1075-1079
- 103
Takano K, Yamaguchi T, Uchida K.
Markers of a hypercoagulable state following acute ischaemic stroke.
Stroke.
1992;
23
194-198
- 104
Ono N, Koyama T, Suehiro A, Oku K, Fujikake K, Kakishita E.
Influence of atrial fibrillation on coagulo-fibrinolytic markers in patients with
cerebral infarction.
Int Angiol.
1992;
11
298-303
- 105
Yamazaki M, Uchiyama S, Maruyama S.
Alterations of haemostatic markers in various subtypes and phases of stroke.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
1993;
4
707-712
- 106
Takano K, Yamaguchi T, Kato H, Omae T.
Activation of coagulation in acute cardioembolic stroke.
Stroke.
1991;
22
12-16
- 107
Ono N, Koyama T, Suehiro A, Oku K, Kakishita E.
Clinical significance of new coagulation and fibrinolytic markers in ischemic stroke
patients.
Stroke.
1991;
22
1369-1373
- 108
Altes A, Abellan M T, Mateo J, Avila A, Marti-Vilalta J L, Fontcuberta J.
Hemostatic disturbances in acute ischaemic stroke: a study of 86 patients.
Acta Haematol.
1995;
94
10-15
- 109
Uchiyama S, Yamazaki M, Hara Y, Makato I.
Alterations of platelet, coagulation, and fibrinolysis markers in patients with acute
ischemic stroke.
Semin Thromb Hemost.
1997;
23
535-541
- 110
Tohgi H, Konno S, Takahashi S, Loizumi D, Kondo R, Takahashi H.
Activated coagulation/fibrinolysis system and platelet function in acute thrombotic
stroke patients with increased C-reactive protein levels.
Thromb Res.
2000;
100
373-379
- 111
Lip G, Blann A, Farooqi I, Zarifis J, Sagar G, Beevers D.
Abnormal haemorheology, endothelial function and thrombogenesis in relation to hypertension
in acute (ictus <12h) stroke patients: the West Birmingham Stroke Project.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
2001;
12
307-315
- 112
McConnell J P, Cheryk L A, Durocher A et al..
Urinary 11-dehydro-thromboxane B(2) and coagulation activation markers measured within
24 h of human acute ischemic stroke.
Neurosci Lett.
2001;
313
88-92
- 113
Grotta J C, Welch KMA, Fagan S C et al..
Clinical deterioration following improvement in the NINDS rt-PA Stroke Trial.
Stroke.
2001;
32
661-668
- 114
Ageno W, Finazzi S, Steidl L et al..
Plasma measurement of D-dimer levels for the early diagnosis of ischemic stroke subtypes.
Arch Intern Med.
2002;
162
2589-2593
- 115
Lip G Y, Blann A D, Farooqi I S, Zarifis J, Sagar G, Beevers D G.
Sequential alterations in haemorheology, endothelial dysfunction, platelet activation
and thrombogenesis in relation to prognosis following acute stroke: the West Birmingham
Stroke Project.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
2002;
13
339-347
- 116
Barber M, Langhorne P, Rumley A, Lowe G D, Stott D J.
Hemostatic function and progressing ischemic stroke. D-dimer predicts early clinical
progression.
Stroke.
2004;
35
1421-1425
- 117
de Boer A C, Turpie A G, Butt R W, Duke R J, Bloch R F, Genton E.
Plasma betathromboglobulin and serum fragment E in acute partial stroke.
Br J Haematol.
1982;
50
327-334
- 118
Kelly J, Rudd A, Lewis R R et al..
Screening for proximal deep vein thrombosis after acute ischemic stroke: a prospective
study using clinical factors and plasma D-dimers.
J Thromb Haemost.
2004;
2
1321-1326
- 119
Salomaa V, Stinson V, Kark J D, Folsom A R, Davis C E, Wu K K.
Association of fibrinolytic parameters with early atherosclerosis. The ARIC study.
Circulation.
1995;
91
284-290
- 120
Woodward M, Lowe G D, Campbell D et al..
Associations of inflammatory and haemostatic variables with the risk of recurrent
stroke.
Stroke.
2005;
, In press
- 121
Smith F B, Lowe G D, Fowkes F G et al..
Smoking, haemostatic factors and lipid peroxides in a population case control study
of peripheral artery disease.
Atherosclerosis.
1993;
102
155-162
- 122
De Buyzere M, Philippe J, Duprez D, Baele G, Clement D L.
Coagulation system activation and increase of D-dimer levels in peripheral arterial
occlusive disease.
Am J Hematol.
1993;
43
91-94
- 123
Lee A J, Fowkes F G, Lowe G D, Rumley A.
Fibrin D-dimer, haemostatic factors and peripheral arterial disease.
Thromb Haemost.
1995;
74
828-832
- 124
Lee A J, Fowkes FGR, Rattray A, Rumley A, Lowe G D.
Haemostatic and rheological factors in intermittent claudication: the influence of
smoking and extent of arterial disease.
Br J Haematol.
1996;
92
226-230
- 125
Woodburn K R, Lowe G D, Rumley A, Love J, Pollock J G.
Relation of haemostatic, fibrinolytic, and rheological variables to the angiographic
extent of peripheral arterial occlusive disease.
Int Angiol.
1995;
14
346-353
- 126
Smith F B, Lee A J, Fowkes FGR, Rumley A, Lowe G D.
Smoking, haemostatic factors and the severity of aorto-iliac and femoro-popliteal
disease.
Thromb Haemost.
1996;
75
19-24
- 127 Bini A, Kudryk B J.
Fibrinogen, fibrin and atherosclerosis: vascular and systemic effects. In: Ernst E, Koenig W, Lowe GD, Meade T Fibrinogen: A “New” Cardiovascular Risk
Factor. Vienna; Blackwell-MZV 1992: 41-45
- 128
Smith E B, Keen G A, Grant A, Stirk C.
Fate of fibrinogen in human arterial intima.
Arteriosclerosis.
1990;
10
263-275
- 129
Lee A J, Fowkes FGR, Lowe G D, Rumley A.
Haemostatic factors, atherosclerosis and risk of abdominal aortic aneurysm.
Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis.
1996;
7
695-701
- 130
Smith F B, Rumley A, Lee A J, Leng G C, Fowkes FGR, Lowe G D.
Haemostatic factors and prediction of ischaemic heart disease and stroke in claudicants.
Br J Haematol.
1998;
100
758-763
- 131
Woodburn K R, Lowe G D, Pollock J G, Rumley A, Reid A W.
Percutaneous angioplasty, endothelial markers, and fibrin turnover.
J Endovasc Surg.
1994;
1
53-60
- 132
Jorgensen B, Nielsen J D, Norgard J, Helligso P, Baekgaard N, Egeblad M.
Cross-linked fibrin degradation products as marker of early rethrombosis after percutaneous
transluminal angioplasty.
Thromb Haemost.
1993;
69
1003
- 133
Price J F, Mamode N, Smith F B et al..
Haemostatic and rheological factors as predictors of restenosis following percutaneous
transluminal angioplasty.
Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg.
1997;
14
392-398
- 134
Andreescu ACM, Cushman M, Rosendaal F R.
D-dimer as a risk factor for deep vein thrombosis: the Leiden thrombophilia study.
Thromb Haemost.
2002;
87
47-51
- 135
Lowe G D.
Prediction of postoperative venous thrombosis using haemostasis tests.
Int J Clin Lab Res.
1997;
27
153-157
- 136
Palareti G, Legnani C, Cosmi B, Guazzaloca G, Pancani C, Coccheri S.
Risk of venous thromboembolism recurrence: high negative predictive value of D-dimer
performed after oral anticoagulation is stopped.
Thromb Haemost.
2002;
87
7-12
- 137
Palareti G, Legnani C, Cosmi B et al..
Predictive value of D-dimer test for recurrent venous thromboembolism after anticoagulation
withdrawal in subjects with a previous idiopathic event and in carriers of congenital
thrombophilias.
Circulation.
2003;
108
313-318
Gordon D.O LoweM.D. F.R.C.P.
Professor of Vascular Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University
of Glasgow, Royal Infirmary, 3rd Floor, Queen Elizabeth Building
10 Alexandra Parade, Glasgow G31 2ER, United Kingdom
