Download PDF
Facial Plast Surg 2008; 24(1): 078-091
DOI: 10.1055/s-2008-1037452
© Thieme Medical Publishers

Endoscopic Treatment of Facial Fractures

Reid Mueller1
  • 1Division of Plastic Surgery, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, Oregon
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
20 February 2008 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

The application of endoscopic surgical techniques to the treatment of craniomaxillofacial fractures not only has decreased the morbidity associated with the surgical approaches but has significantly altered the treatment philosophy for many types of fracture. Frontal sinus fractures, orbital floor fractures, zygomatic arch fractures, and subcondylar mandible fractures are the most notable examples where endoscopic techniques have found acceptance.

KEYWORDS

Face - fracture - orbital floor - blowout - frontal sinus - zygomatic arch - subcondylar - mandible - endoscope - endoscopic

REFERENCES

  • 1 Milne J S. Surgical Instruments in Greek and Roman Times. Oxford; Clarendon Press 1907: 187
    Google Scholar
  • 2 Bozzini P. Lichtleiter, eine Erfindung zur Anschauung innerer Teile und Krankheiten.  Journal der Praktischen Heilkunde. 1806;  24 107-124
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Hausmann H. [Our urologic heritage: Maximilian Nitze (1848-1906). His importance in the development of urology].  Z Urol Nephrol. 1987;  80 539-543
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Hopkins H, Kapany N. A flexible fiberscope.  Nature. 1954;  173 39-41
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Lamm H. Biegsame Optische Gerate.  Zeitschrift Instrumentenkunde. 1930;  50 579-581
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Vasconez L O, Core G B, Gamboa-Bobadilla M et al.. Endoscopic techniques in coronal brow lifting.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1994;  94 788-793
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 McCain L A, Jones G. Application of endoscopic techniques in aesthetic plastic surgery.  Plast Surg Nurs. 1995;  15 149-157
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Ramirez O M. Endoscopic subperiosteal browlift and facelift.  Clin Plast Surg. 1995;  22 639-660
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Song I C, Pozner J N, Sadeh A E, Shin M S. Endoscopic-assisted recontouring of the facial skeleton: the forehead.  Ann Plast Surg. 1995;  34 323-325 discussion 325
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Onishi K, Maruyama Y, Sawaizumi M. Use of endoscopic surgery for forehead recontouring.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;  100 1327-1332
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Jimenez D F, Barone C M. Endoscopic craniectomy for early surgical correction of sagittal craniosynostosis.  J Neurosurg. 1998;  88 77-81
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Barone C M, Jimenez D F. Endoscopic craniectomy for early correction of craniosynostosis.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1999;  104 1965-1973 discussion 1974-1975
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Jimenez D F, Barone C M. Endoscopy-assisted wide-vertex craniectomy, "barrel-stave" osteotomies, and postoperative helmet molding therapy in the early management of sagittal suture craniosynostosis.  Neurosurg Focus. 2000;  9 e2
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Jimenez D F, Barone C M, Cartwright C C, Baker L. Early management of craniosynostosis using endoscopic-assisted strip craniectomies and cranial orthotic molding therapy.  Pediatrics. 2002;  110(1 Pt 1) 97-104
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Stelnicki E J. Endoscopic treatment of craniosynostosis.  Atlas Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2002;  10 57-72
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Cartwright C C, Jimenez D F, Barone C M, Baker L. Endoscopic strip craniectomy: a minimally invasive treatment for early correction of craniosynostosis.  J Neurosci Nurs. 2003;  35 130-138
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Jimenez D F, Barone C M, McGee M E, Cartwright C C, Baker C L. Endoscopy-assisted wide-vertex craniectomy, barrel stave osteotomies, and postoperative helmet molding therapy in the management of sagittal suture craniosynostosis.  J Neurosurg. 2004;  100(5 Suppl Pediatrics) 407-417
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Cohen S R, Holmes R E, Ozgur B M, Meltzer H S, Levy M L. Fronto-orbital and cranial osteotomies with resorbable fixation using an endoscopic approach.  Clin Plast Surg. 2004;  31 429-442 vi
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Murad G J, Clayman M, Seagle M B et al.. Endoscopic-assisted repair of craniosynostosis.  Neurosurg Focus. 2005;  19 E6
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Weiss D D, Robson C D, Mulliken J B. Transnasal endoscopic excision of midline nasal dermoid from the anterior cranial base.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;  102 2119-2123
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Kokoska M S, Branham G H, Hamilton M M, Thomas J R. Endoscopic excision of a forehead mass.  Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1997;  123 815-817
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Cronin E D, Ruiz-Razura A, Livingston C K, Katzen J T. Endoscopic approach for the resection of forehead masses.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 2000;  105 2459-2463
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Guerrissi J O. Endoscopic excision of frontozygomatic dermoid cysts.  J Craniofac Surg. 2004;  15 618-622
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Meningaud J P, Pitak-Arnnop P, Rigolet A, Bertrand J C. Endoscopic excision of forehead lipomas.  Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;  35 951-953
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Lin S D, Lee S S, Chang K P et al.. Endoscopic excision of benign tumors in the forehead and brow.  Ann Plast Surg. 2001;  46 1-4
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Graham III H D, Spring P. Endoscopic repair of frontal sinus fracture: case report.  J Craniomaxillofac Trauma. 1996;  2 52-55
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Barone C M, Boschert M T, Jimenez D F. Usefulness of endoscopy in craniofacial trauma.  J Craniomaxillofac Trauma. 1998;  4 36-41
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Lappert P W, Lee J W. Treatment of an isolated outer table frontal sinus fracture using endoscopic reduction and fixation.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;  102 1642-1645
    Google Scholar
  • 29 Strong E B, Buchalter G M, Moulthrop T H. Endoscopic repair of isolated anterior table frontal sinus fractures.  Arch Facial Plast Surg. 2003;  5 514-521
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Chen D J, Chen C T, Chen Y R, Feng G M. Endoscopically assisted repair of frontal sinus fracture.  J Trauma. 2003;  55 378-382
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Verret D J, Ducic Y, Oxford L, Smith J. Hydroxyapatite cement in craniofacial reconstruction.  Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;  133 897-899
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Shumrick K A. Endoscopic management of frontal sinus fractures.  Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am. 2006;  14 31-35
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Steiger J D, Chiu A G, Francis D O, Palmer J N. Endoscopic-assisted reduction of anterior table frontal sinus fractures.  Laryngoscope. 2006;  116 1936-1939
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Strong E B, Kellman R M. Endoscopic repair of anterior table-frontal sinus fractures.  Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am. 2006;  14 25-29
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Kim K K, Mueller R V, Huang F, Strong E B. Endoscopic repair of anterior table: frontal sinus fractures with a medpor implant.  Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2007;  136 568-572
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Metson R, Dallow R L, Shore J W. Endoscopic orbital decompression.  Laryngoscope. 1994;  104(8 Pt 1) 950-957
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Metson R, Shore J W, Gliklich R E, Dallow R L. Endoscopic orbital decompression under local anesthesia.  Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1995;  113 661-667
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Khan J A, Wagner D V, Tiojanco J K, Hoover L A. Combined transconjunctival and external approach for endoscopic orbital apex decompression in Graves' disease.  Laryngoscope. 1995;  105 203-206
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 White W A, White W L, Shapiro P E. Combined endoscopic medial and inferior orbital decompression with transcutaneous lateral orbital decompression in Graves' orbitopathy.  Ophthalmology. 2003;  110 1827-1832
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Levy J, Puterman M, Lifshitz T et al.. Endoscopic orbital decompression for Graves' ophthalmopathy.  Isr Med Assoc J. 2004;  6 673-676
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Kasperbauer J L, Hinkley L. Endoscopic orbital decompression for Graves' ophthalmopathy.  Am J Rhinol. 2005;  19 603-606
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Chen C T, Chen Y R, Tung T C, Lai J P, Rohrich R J. Endoscopically assisted reconstruction of orbital medial wall fractures.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1999;  103 714-720 , quiz 721
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Barone C M, Gigantelli J W. Endoscopic repair of posttraumatic enophthalmos using medial transconjunctival approach: a case report.  J Craniomaxillofac Trauma. 1998;  4 22-26
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Forrest C R. Application of endoscope-assisted minimal-access techniques in orbitozygomatic complex, orbital floor, and frontal sinus fractures.  J Craniomaxillofac Trauma. 1999;  5 7-12 , discussion 13-14
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Jin H R, Yeon J Y, Shin S O, Choi Y S, Lee D W. Endoscopic versus external repair of orbital blowout fractures.  Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2007;  136 38-44
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Ikeda K, Suzuki H, Oshima T, Takasaka T. Endoscopic endonasal repair of orbital floor fracture.  Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1999;  125 59-63
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Lee C H, Lee C, Trabulsy P P, Alexander J T, Lee K. A cadaveric and clinical evaluation of endoscopically assisted zygomatic fracture repair.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;  101 333-345 discussion 346-337
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Lee C, Jacobovicz J, Mueller R V. Endoscopic repair of a complex midfacial fracture.  J Craniofac Surg. 1997;  8 170-175
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Strong E B, Kim K K, Diaz R C. Endoscopic approach to orbital blowout fracture repair.  Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;  131 683-695
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Strong E B. Endoscopic repair of orbital blow-out fractures.  Facial Plast Surg. 2004;  20 223-230
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Wallace T D, Moore C C, Bromwich M A, Matic D B. Endoscopic repair of orbital floor fractures: computed tomographic analysis using a cadaveric model.  J Otolaryngol. 2006;  35 1-7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Miki T, Wada J, Haraoka J, Inaba I. Endoscopic transmaxillary reduction and balloon technique for blowout fractures of the orbital floor.  Minim Invasive Neurosurg. 2004;  47 359-364
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Hinohira Y, Yumoto E, Shimamura I. Endoscopic endonasal reduction of blowout fractures of the orbital floor.  Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;  133 741-747
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Rhee J S, Lynch J, Loehrl T A. Intranasal endoscopy-assisted repair of medial orbital wall fractures.  Arch Facial Plast Surg. 2000;  2 269-273
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Rhee J S, Chen C T. Endoscopic approach to medial orbital wall fractures.  Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am. 2006;  14 17-23
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Farwell D G, Strong E B. Endoscopic repair of orbital floor fractures.  Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am. 2006;  14 11-16
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Mohadjer Y, Hartstein M E. Endoscopic orbital fracture repair.  Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2006;  39 1049-1057
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Otori N, Haruna S, Moriyama H. Endoscopic endonasal or transmaxillary repair of orbital floor fracture: a study of 88 patients treated in our department.  Acta Otolaryngol. 2003;  123 718-723
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Mun G H, Song Y H, Bang S I. Endoscopically assisted transconjunctival approach in orbital medial wall fractures.  Ann Plast Surg. 2002;  49 337-343 , discussion 344
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Naraghi M, Kashfi A. Endonasal endoscopic treatment of medial orbital wall fracture via rotational repositioning.  Am J Otolaryngol. 2002;  23 312-315
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Persons B L, Wong G B. Transantral endoscopic orbital floor repair using resorbable plate.  J Craniofac Surg. 2002;  13 483-488 , discussion 488-489
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Miloro M. Endoscopically assisted repair of orbital floor fractures.  Arch Facial Plast Surg. 2002;  4 124-125
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Mohammad J A, Warnke P H, Shenaq S M. Endoscopic exploration of the orbital floor: a technique for transantral grafting of floor blowout fractures.  J Craniomaxillofac Trauma. 1998;  4 16-19 , discussion 15
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Chen C T, Chen Y R. Endoscopically assisted repair of orbital floor fractures.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;  108 2011-2018 , discussion 2019
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Jin H R, Shin S O, Choo M J, Choi Y S. Endonasal endoscopic reduction of blowout fractures of the medial orbital wall.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;  58 847-851
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Saunders C J, Whetzel T P, Stokes R B, Wong G B, Stevenson T R. Transantral endoscopic orbital floor exploration: a cadaver and clinical study.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;  100 575-581
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Geyer G, Rochels R. [Endoscopic and echographic diagnosis of orbital fractures].  Fortschr Ophthalmol. 1984;  81 119-121
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Sandler N A, Carrau R L, Ochs M W, Beatty R L. The use of maxillary sinus endoscopy in the diagnosis of orbital floor fractures.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1999;  57 399-403
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Chen C T, Chen Y R. Endoscopic orbital surgery.  Atlas Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2003;  11 179-208
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Nishiike S, Nagai M, Nakagawa A et al.. Endoscopic transantral orbital floor repair with antral bone grafts.  Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;  131 911-915
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Westphal D, Kreidler J F. Sinuscopy for the diagnosis of blow-out fractures.  J Maxillofac Surg. 1977;  5 180-183
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Wiltfang J, Kessler P, Neukam F W. [Endoscopically-assisted LeFort I osteotomy in distraction procedures of the maxilla].  Mund Kiefer Gesichtschir. 2002;  6 231-235
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Wiltfang J, Kessler P. Endoscopically assisted Le Fort I osteotomy to correct transverse and sagittal discrepancies of the maxilla.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2002;  60 1142-1145 , discussion 1146
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Troulis M J, Perrott D H, Kaban L B. Endoscopic mandibular osteotomy, and placement and activation of a semiburied distractor.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1999;  57 1110-1113
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Hierl T, Hemprich A. Endoscopically assisted intraoral mandibular distraction osteogenesis.  Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2001;  30 339-341
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Rubin J P, Posnick J C, Yaremchuk M J. Role of endoscopic and distraction techniques in facial and reconstructive surgery: new technology or improved results.  J Craniofac Surg. 1998;  9 285-299
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Kobayashi S, Sakai Y, Yamada A, Ohmori K. Approaching the zygoma with an endoscope.  J Craniofac Surg. 1995;  6 519-524
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Lee C H, Lee C, Trabulsy P P. Endoscopic-assisted repair of a malar fracture.  Ann Plast Surg. 1996;  37 178-183
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Cheski P J, Matthews T W. Endoscopic reduction and internal cyanoacrylate fixation of the zygoma.  J Otolaryngol. 1997;  26 75-79
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Chen C T, Lai J P, Chen Y R et al.. Application of endoscope in zygomatic fracture repair.  Br J Plast Surg. 2000;  53 100-105
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Krimmel M, Cornelius C P, Reinert S. Endoscopically assisted zygomatic fracture reduction and osteosynthesis revisited.  Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2002;  31 485-488
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Czerwinski M, Lee C. Traumatic arch injury: indications and an endoscopic method of repair.  Facial Plast Surg. 2004;  20 231-238
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Czerwinski M, Lee C. The rationale and technique of endoscopic approach to the zygomatic arch in facial trauma.  Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am. 2006;  14 37-43
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Lee C, Mueller R V, Lee K, Mathes S J. Endoscopic subcondylar fracture repair: functional, aesthetic, and radiographic outcomes.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;  102 1434-1443 , discussion 1444-1435
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Schmelzeisen R, Lauer G, Wichmann U. [Endoscope-assisted fixation of condylar fractures of the mandible].  Mund Kiefer Gesichtschir. 1998;  2(Suppl 1) S168-S170
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Sandler N A, Andreasen K H, Johns F R. The use of endoscopy in the management of subcondylar fractures of the mandible: a cadaver study.  Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1999;  88 529-531
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Troulis M J, Kaban L B. Endoscopic approach to the ramus/condyle unit: clinical applications.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2001;  59 503-509
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Schon R, Gutwald R, Schramm A, Gellrich N C, Schmelzeisen R. Endoscopy-assisted open treatment of condylar fractures of the mandible: extraoral vs intraoral approach.  Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2002;  31 237-243
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Kellman R M. Endoscopically assisted repair of subcondylar fractures of the mandible: an evolving technique.  Arch Facial Plast Surg. 2003;  5 244-250
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Kellman R M. Endoscopic approach to subcondylar mandible fractures.  Facial Plast Surg. 2004;  20 239-247
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Onishi K, Osaki M, Maruyama Y. Endoscopic osteosynthesis for frontal bone fracture.  Ann Plast Surg. 1998;  40 650-654
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Shumrick K A, Ryzenman J M. Endoscopic management of facial fractures.  Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am. 2001;  9 469-474
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Zide M F. Open reduction of mandibular condyle fractures. Indications and technique.  Clin Plast Surg. 1989;  16 69-76
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Zide M F, Kent J N. Indications for open reduction of mandibular condyle fractures.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1983;  41 89-98
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 de Amaratunga N A. Mouth opening after release of maxillomandibular fixation in fracture patients.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1987;  45 383-385
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Ellis III E, Throckmorton G S. Bite forces after open or closed treatment of mandibular condylar process fractures.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2001;  59 389-395
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Ellis III E, Simon P, Throckmorton G S. Occlusal results after open or closed treatment of fractures of the mandibular condylar process.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;  58 260-268
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Ellis III E, Throckmorton G. Facial symmetry after closed and open treatment of fractures of the mandibular condylar process.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;  58 719-728 discussion 729-730
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Jeter T S, Van Sickels J E, Nishioka G J. Intraoral open reduction with rigid internal fixation of mandibular subcondylar fractures.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1988;  46 1113-1116
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Klotch D W, Lundy L B. Condylar neck fractures of the mandible.  Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 1991;  24 181-194
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Konstantinovic V S, Dimitrijevic B. Surgical versus conservative treatment of unilateral condylar process fractures: clinical and radiographic evaluation of 80 patients.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1992;  50 349-352 discussion 352-343
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Lachner J, Clanton J T, Waite P D. Open reduction and internal rigid fixation of subcondylar fractures via an intraoral approach.  Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1991;  71 257-261
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Palmieri C, Ellis III E, Throckmorton G. Mandibular motion after closed and open treatment of unilateral mandibular condylar process fractures.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1999;  57 764-775 discussion 775-766
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Raveh J, Vuillemin T, Ladrach K. Open reduction of the dislocated, fractured condylar process: indications and surgical procedures.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1989;  47 120-127
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Throckmorton G S, Ellis III E. Recovery of mandibular motion after closed and open treatment of unilateral mandibular condylar process fractures.  Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;  29 421-427
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Worsaae N, Thorn J J. Surgical versus nonsurgical treatment of unilateral dislocated low subcondylar fractures: a clinical study of 52 cases.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1994;  52 353-360 discussion 360-351
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Worsaae N, Thorn J J. [Surgical versus non-surgical treatment of unilateral dislocated fractures of the lower mandibular condyle].  Ugeskr Laeger. 1995;  157 3472-3476
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Honda T, Sasaki K, Takeuchi M, Nozaki M. Endoscope-assisted intraoral approach for masseteric hypertrophy.  Ann Plast Surg. 1997;  38 9-14
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Jacobovicz J, Lee C, Trabulsy P P. Endoscopic repair of mandibular subcondylar fractures.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;  101 437-441
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Chen C T, Lai J P, Tung T C, Chen Y R. Endoscopically assisted mandibular subcondylar fracture repair.  Plast Reconstr Surg. 1999;  103 60-65
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Honda T, Nozaki M, Isono N, Sasaki K. Endoscope-assisted facial fracture repair.  World J Surg. 2001;  25 1075-1083
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Sandler N A. Endoscopic-assisted reduction and fixation of a mandibular subcondylar fracture: report of a case.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2001;  59 1479-1482
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Miloro M. Endoscopic-assisted repair of subcondylar fractures.  Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2003;  96 387-391
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Schon R, Schramm A, Gellrich N C, Schmelzeisen R. Follow-up of condylar fractures of the mandible in 8 patients at 18 months after transoral endoscopic-assisted open treatment.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2003;  61 49-54
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Troulis M J. Endoscopic open reduction and internal rigid fixation of subcondylar fractures.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2004;  62 1269-1271
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Vural E. Treatment of adult subcondylar mandibular fractures: closed vs open vs endoscopic approach.  Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;  130 1228-1230
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Mueller R V, Czerwinski M, Lee C, Kellman R M. Condylar fracture repair: use of the endoscope to advance traditional treatment philosophy.  Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am. 2006;  14 1-9
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Troulis M J, Nahlieli O, Castano F, Kaban L B. Minimally invasive orthognathic surgery: endoscopic vertical ramus osteotomy.  Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;  29 239-242
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Suarez-Cunqueiro M M, Schon R, Gellrich N C, Schmelzeisen R. Endoscopic assistance in the removal of a foreign body in the condylar process.  J Craniofac Surg. 2004;  15 98-101
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Mueller R V. Endoscopic removal of a bullet from the temporomandibular joint. Portland; 1998
    Google Scholar
  • 121 Lauer G, Schmelzeisen R. Endoscope-assisted fixation of mandibular condylar process fractures.  J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1999;  57 36-39 discussion 39-40
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Lee C, Stiebel M, Young D M. Cranial nerve VII region of the traumatized facial skeleton: optimizing fracture repair with the endoscope.  J Trauma. 2000;  48 423-431 discussion 431-422
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar

Reid MuellerM.D. 

Associate Professor, Division of Plastic Surgery, Oregon Health Sciences University

3303 SW Bond Avenue, CH5P, Portland, OR 97239

      >