Download PDF
Int J Sports Med 2018; 39(12): 929-935
DOI: 10.1055/a-0658-1546
Orthopedics & Biomechanics
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Upper Extremity Pain and Pitching Mechanics in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Softball

Gretchen D. Oliver
1   School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States
,
Gabrielle G. Gilmer
1   School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States
,
Adam W. Anz
2   Andrews Institute for Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine, Sports Medicine, Gulf Breeze, Florida, United States
,
Kenzie B. Friesen
1   School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States
,
Abigail R. Brittain
1   School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States
,
Michael D. Goodlett
3   Auburn Sports Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States
,
Jeffrey R. Dugas
4   Andrews Sports Medicine and Orthopaedic Center, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
,
James R. Andrews
2   Andrews Institute for Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine, Sports Medicine, Gulf Breeze, Florida, United States
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History



Accepted 28 June 2018

Publication Date:
11 September 2018 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to evaluate pitching mechanics between female softball pitchers with upper extremity pain and those without upper extremity pain. Specifically, the trunk, shoulder and elbow kinematics and shoulder kinetics during the change-up softball pitch were examined. Fifty-five collegiate softball pitchers participated, divided into those with upper extremity pain (20.0±1.3 yrs.; 174.4±6.9 cm; 82.9±12.4 kg; 11.1±2.6 yrs. of experience; n=23) and those who were pain-free (19.9±1.4 yrs.; 173.8±6.9 cm; 81.4±12.5 kg; 10.0±2.5 yrs. of experience; n=32). Pitching mechanics were obtained via the trakSTAR™ electromagnetic tracking system (Ascension Technologies, Inc., Burlington, VT, USA). Mann-Whitney U tests revealed significant differences in shoulder horizontal abduction at foot contact (p=0.014, U=153, Z=2.450) and trunk lateral flexion at ball release (p=0.012, U=150, Z=–2.515); and between shoulder distraction force at ball release (p=0.034, U=168, Z=–2.124). The pain group illustrated greater shoulder horizontal abduction at foot contact, less trunk lateral flexion towards the throwing side at ball release, and greater shoulder distraction at ball release than the pain-free group. The differences in trunk and shoulder kinematics, and shoulder kinetics between groups allows for insight into further studies examining injury pervasiveness in softball pitching.

Key words

injury - fast-pitch softball - windmill softball pitch
 

  • References

  • 1 Andrews JR, Carson Jr WG, McLeod WD. Glenoid labrum tears related to the long head of the biceps. Am J Sports Med 1985; 13: 337-341
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Barrentine SW, Fleisig GS, Whiteside JA, Escamilla RF, Andrews JR. Biomechanics of windmill softball pitching with implications about injury mechanisms at the shoulder and elbow. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1998; 28: 405-415
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Birchak JC, Rochette LM, Smith GA. Softball injuries treated in US EDs, 1994 to 2010. Am J Emerg Med 2013; 31: 900-905
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Bogenschutz ED, Smith HD, Warden SJ. Midhumerus adaptation in fast-pitch softballers and the effect of throwing mechanics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011; 43: 1698-1706
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Bonza JE, Fields SK, Yard EE, Comstock RD. Shoulder injuries among United States high school athletes during the 2005–2006 and 2006–2007 school years. J Athl Train 2009; 44: 76-83
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Briskin SM. Injuries and medical issues in softball. Curr Sports Med Rep 2012; 11: 265-271
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Day J, Murdoch D, Dumas G. Calibration of position and angular data from a magnetic tracking device. J Biomech 2000; 33: 1039-1045
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 U.S. Department of Education. Equity in Athletics Data Analysis. 2018
    PubMed
  • 9 Gilmer GG, Washington JK, Dugas J, Andrews J, Oliver GD. The role of lumbopelvic-hip complex stability in softball throwing mechanics. J Sport Rehabil 2017; 15: 1-7
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Guido Jr. JA, Werner SL, Meister K. Lower-extremity ground reaction forces in youth windmill softball pitchers. J Strength Cond Res 2009; 23: 1873-1876
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Harriss D, MacSween A, Atkinson G. Standards for ethics in sport and exercise science resaerch: 2018 update. Int J Sports Med 2017; 38: 1126-1131
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Haung YH, Wu TY, Learman KE, Tsai YS. A comparison of throwing kinematics between youth baseball players with and without a history of medial elbow pain. Chin J Physiol 2010; 53: 160-166
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Hughes A. Softball popularity continues to grow: popularity and exposure may aid in Olympics addition. Online https://www.ncaa.com/news/softball/2011-07-23/softball-popularity-continues-grow Accessed 2016
    PubMed
  • 14 Janda DH, Wild DE, Hensinger RN. Softball injuries. Aetiology and prevention. Sports Med 1992; 13: 285-291
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Kageyama M, Sugiyama T, Kanehisa H, Maeda A. Difference between adolescent and collegiate baseball pitchers in kinematics and kinetics of the lower limbs and trunk during pitching motion. J Sports Sci Med 2015; 14: 246-255
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Keeley DW, Oliver GD, Dougherty CP. Shoulder kinematics during pitching: comparing the slide step and traditional stretch deliveries. Hum Mov Sci 2012; 31: 1191-1199
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Kibler WB, Chandler TJ, Shapiro R, Conuel M. Muscle activation in coupled scapulohumeral motions in the high-performance tennis serve. Br J Sports Med 2007; 41: 745-749
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Kibler WB, Press J, Sciascia A. The role of core stability in athletic function. Sports Med 2006; 36: 189-198
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Krajnik S, Fogarty KJ, Yard EE, Comstock RD. Shoulder injuries in US high school baseball and softball athletes, 2005–2008. Pediatrics 2010; 125: 497-501
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Loosli AR, Requa RK, Garrick JG, Hanley E. Injuries to pitchers in women's collegiate fast-pitch softball. Am J Sports Med 1992; 20: 35-37
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Love S, Aytar A, Bush H, Uhl TL. Descriptive analysis of pitch volume in southeastern conference baseball pitchers. N Am J Sports Phys Ther 2010; 5: 194-200
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Ludewig PM, Cook TM. Alterations in shoulder kinematics and associated muscle activity in people with symptoms of shoulder impingement. Phys Ther 2000; 80: 276-291
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Lyman S, Fleisig GS, Andrews JR, Osinski ED. Effect of pitch type, pitch count, and pitching mechanics on risk of elbow and shoulder pain in youth baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med 2002; 30: 463-468
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Marshall SW, Hamstra-Wright KL, Dick R, Grove KA, Agel J. Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate women's softball injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 1988–1989 through 2003–2004. J Athl Train 2007; 42: 286-294
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Meskers C, Fraterman H, Helm F, Vermeulen H. Calibration of the “Flock of Birds” electromagnetic tracking device and its application in shoulder motion studies. J Biomech 1999; 32: 629-633
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Meyers MC, Brown BR, Bloom JA. Fast pitch softball injuries. Sports Med 2001; 31: 61-73
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Oliver GD, Dwelly PM, Kwon YH. Kinematic motion of the windmill softball pitch in prepubescent and pubescent girls. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 24: 2400-2407
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Oliver GD, Keeley DW. Gluteal muscle group activation and its relationship with pelvis and torso kinematics in high-school baseball pitchers. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 24: 3015-3022
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Oliver GD, Keeley DW. Pelvis and torso kinematics and their relationship to shoulder kinematics in high-school baseball pitchers. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 24: 3241-3246
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Perie D, Tate AJ, Cheng PL, Dumas GA. Evaluation and calibration of an electromagnetic tracking device for biomechanical analysis of lifting task. J Biomech 2002; 35: 293-297
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Plummer H, Oliver GD. The relationship between gluteal muscle activation and throwing kinematics in baseball and softball catchers. J Strength Cond Res 2014; 28: 87-96
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Powell JW, Barber-Foss KD. Injury patterns in selected high school sports: a review of the 1995-1997 seasons. J Athl Train 1999; 34: 277-284
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Pytiak AV, Kraeutler MJ, Currie DW, McCarty EC, Comstock RD. An epideminologial comparison of elbow injuries among United States high school baseball and softball players, 2005–2006 through 2014–2015. Sports Health 2018; 10: 119-124
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Rauh MJ, Macera CA, Ji M, Wiksten DL. Subsequent injury patterns in girls' high school sports. J Athl Train 2007; 42: 486-494
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Rechel JA, Yard EE, Comstock RD. An epidemiologic comparison of high school sports injuries sustained in practice and competition. J Athl Train 2008; 43: 197-204
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Rojas IL, Provencher MT, Bhatia S, Foucher KC, Bach Jr. BR, Romeo AA, Wimmer MA, Verma NN. Biceps activity during windmill softball pitching: injury implications and comparison with overhand throwing. Am J Sports Med 2009; 37: 558-565
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Roos KG, Marshall R, Kerr ZY, Golightly YM, Kucera KL, Myers JB, Rosamond WD. Epidemology of overuse injuries in collegiate and high school athletics in the United States. Am J Sports Med 2015; 43: 1790-1797
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Sauers EL, Dykstra DL, Bay RC, Bliven KH, Snyder AR. Upper extremity injury history, current pain rating, and health-related quality of life in female softball pitchers. J Sport Rehabil 2011; 20: 100-114
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Shanley E, Michener LA, Ellenbecker TS, Rauh MJ. Shoulder range of motion, pitch count, and injuries among interscholastic female softball pitchers: a descriptive study. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2012; 7: 548-557
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Shanley E, Rauh MJ, Michener LA, Ellenbecker TS. Incidence of injuries in high school softball and baseball players. J Athl Train 2011; 46: 648-654
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Shanley E, Rauh MJ, Michener LA, Ellenbecker TS, Garrison JC, Thigpen CA. Shoulder range of motion measures as risk factors for shoulder and elbow injuries in high school softball and baseball players. Am J Sports Med 2011; 39: 1997-2006
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Skillington SA, Brophy RH, Wright RW, Smith MV. Effect of pitching consecutive days in youth fast-pitch softball tournaments on objective shoulder strength and subjective shoulder symptoms. Am J Sports Med 2017; 45: 1413-1419
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Tanabe S, Nakahira J, Bando E, Yamaguchi H, Miyamoto H, Yamamoto A. Fatigue fracture of the ulna occurring in pitchers of fast-pitch softball. Am J Sports Med 1991; 19: 317-321
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Tanaka H, Hayashi T, Inui H, Ninomiya H, Muto T, Nobuhara K. Influence of combinations of shoulder, elbow and trunk orientation on elbow joint loads in youth baseball pitchers. Ortho J Sports Med 2016; 4: 4(7 suppl4) 2325967116S00204
    PubMed
  • 45 Veeger HE. The position of the rotation center of the glenohumeral joint. J Biomech 2000; 33: 1711-1715
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Werner SL, Guido JA, McNeice RP, Richardson JL, Delude NA, Stewart GW. Biomechanics of youth windmill softball pitching. Am J Sports Med 2005; 33: 552-560
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Werner SL, Jones DG, Guido Jr. JA, Brunet ME. Kinematics and kinetics of elite windmill softball pitching. Am J Sports Med 2006; 34: 597-603
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Wicke J, Keeley DW, Oliver GD. Comparison of pitching kinematics between youth and adult baseball pitchers: a meta-analytic approach. Sports Biomech 2013; 12: 315-323
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Wu G, Siegler S, Allard P, Kirtley C, Leardini A, Rosenbaum D, Whittle M, D'Lima DD, Cristofolini L, Witte H, Schmid O, Stokes I. ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate system of various joints for reporting of human joint motion–Part I: ankle, hip, and spine. J Biomech 2002; 35: 543-548
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Wu G, van der Helm FCT, Veeger HEJ, Makhsous M, Van Roy P, Anglin C, Nagels J, Karduna AR, McQuade K, Wang X, Werner FW, Buchholz B. ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate systems of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion–Part II: shoulder, elbow, wrist and hand. J Biomech 2005; 38: 981-992
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar