Key words
Aquatics - Infant behavior - Baby
Introduction
The participation of infants in aquatic activities has increased remarkably in the
last several decades. The proposed aquatic programs are not directed towards
teaching infants (generally between 6–36 months) to swim or to prevent
drowning. Instead, they should aim to contribute to their sensory and motor
development, as demonstrated by previous studies [1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]. Usually, those types of classes help
developing body awareness and encourage autonomy and sociability. The presence of
the infant’s parents is key to facilitate this process because it gives the
child confidence to try out new movements and sensations in a new environment.
Despite differing greatly from each other, the most common pedagogical approaches
for
water familiarization tend to provide a compromise between the pleasure of being in
the water and the effective learning of several basic aquatic skills [7]
[8]. Aquatic and terrestrial
environment-oriented activities present different characteristics. The intensity of
effort, as determined by body immersion and position, and water temperature, leads
to anxiety and panic (fear) especially in young and inexperienced infants [9].
Previous studies aimed to register the child’s experiences during swimming
lessons [10]
[11]
[12]
[13]. This information gave useful tips and
practical implications for swimming teachers, leading to adjustments in session
planning considering the level of aquatic competence and infant experience.
More naturalistic observations constitute a valuable comprehensive method in which
participants are observed in their natural context avoiding intrusion or
interference with the normal course of the events [14].
Using enhanced video recordings and coding of naturalistic observations, our study
aimed to describe infants’ behaviour during routine swimming sessions. The
study was carried out in an informal aquatic setting, without manipulation or
intervention by observers, but under strict protocols and techniques in order to
eliminate limitations and subjectivities.
Materials and Methods
Participants
Fourteen infants 13.7±7.5 months old and with 7.71±7.54 months of
experience took part in this study. All parents displayed a good aquatic
readiness level (verified by their child´s swimming teacher) and were
engaged with their infant’s swim sessions on a regular basis since the
beginning of their baby’s swimming sessions in order that the
parents’ presence might reduce their infant’s anxiety level and
affect their behaviour.
Infants were selected according to the following criteria: (i) children with
weekly participation in all proposed swim sessions (September to December); (ii)
all sessions were conducted by the same teacher, specialized in infant swimming;
and (iii) all children were accompanied by their parents who showed a good
aquatic readiness. The exclusion criteria were: (i) infants who refused their
inclusion in the study; (ii) parents without or with poor aquatic adaptation;
(iii) infants with some pathology or specific physical conditions; or (iv)
infants who did not participate in all the sessions and/or left the
sessions earlier.
The study was conducted according to the requirements of the Declaration of
Helsinki and meets the ethical standards in sport and exercise science research
[15]. Parents gave their formal
written consent for the infants to participate.
Study design
The experimental set included five sessions conducted using a child-centred
methodology. The first three sessions aimed at familiarization of the infants
with the apparatus and data collection procedures. The remaining two sessions
were used for data collection.
The observation procedures were defined and divided according to the most
important components [16], because the
main goal was to observe the infants’ behaviour while they participated
in swimming sessions.
The researcher responsible for the video acquisition in this study had a training
period prior to the main observation time point, according to other protocols
already used in this area [17]. Swimming
sessions were performed in an indoor swimming pool 16 meters in length and one
meter deep. Water temperature was 31 ºC, air temperature 28 ºC
with 65% humidity. All sessions lasted 30 minutes and were conducted by
a specialized instructor. Each session’s structure was designed
according to individual characteristics (e. g. age, motor development
level, background experience in swim sessions, etc). Parents stayed close to
their infant but allowed them to perform the proposed skills with autonomy. Each
swim session comprised four distinct parts: (i) initial part, welcoming routine
of infants and adults by the instructor (5 minutes); (ii) main part, promoting
the stimulation of the motor skills and social aspects (10 minutes); (iii) free
period, where infants and adults share non-oriented activities together (10
minutes); and (iv) the final part, where infants say good-bye (5 minutes).
Auxiliary equipment was used to stimulate the infant to perform the motor skills
when necessary.
Measures
All sessions were recorded with one video camera located 3 meters away, in front
of the protocol pool set in order to reduce any change in the infants’
behaviour. The camera recorded one baby at a time in the class. The camera
position, zoom, and mobility allowed capturing the best perspective of all the
emotional state of the babies.
The actions in the recorded video were registered by putting into words every
motion expressed in the video. Data was analyzed according to the categorized
variable [16]
[18]
[19]. The order and type of occurrences of
different dimensions (motor behaviour and socio-affective) and categories were
registered for later analysis. The duration of children’s activities
were recorded. Problems associated with eventual observational errors and
precision accuracy of the experts, despite their ten years of experience in the
area and academic qualifications, were minimized by applying the Bellack index
– (total agreements/total agreements+total
disagreements)×100 – accepting a result equal or superior to
eighty percent as the guarantor of reliability [18].
The motor behaviour dimension was split into the following categories: i)
child´s interaction (with an adult, another child, water or object); and
ii) motor skills (vertical and horizontal displacement, displacement with
support of an adult or material, submersion, and jumps). The socio-affective
dimension was split into the following categories: i) child’s eye-gaze
direction (to another child, to an adult, to water, to object); and ii)
child’s emotional expressions (laughing, crying, screaming, passive,
disagreeable).
Analysis
Data are reported as mean±standard deviation (SD). All variables were
analyzed according to the percentage of occurrence in each dimension and
category (child’s actions were registered by frequency and not by
sequence.
Results
The Bellack Index was used to assess inter-observer reliability, and the values
obtained showed a strong concordance between them ([Table 1]
[1a]) because 92% was the lowest
value for the ‘Looking at other’ category. Also, the intra-observer
test demonstrates consistency with a mean of 96% overall concordance ([Table 2]
[2a]).
Table 1 Bellack Index inter-observer results – Motor
behaviour dimension.
|
Motor behaviour dimension
|
|
Interaction
|
Skills
|
|
IBco
|
IBpp
|
IBh2o
|
IBobj
|
Dv
|
Dhd
|
Dhv
|
Dmat
|
Dac
|
DnonSup
|
Iv
|
Inv
|
Jmat
|
Jac
|
JnonSup
|
|
Bellack Index
|
93.8%
|
100.0%
|
100.0%
|
97.2%
|
97.4%
|
100.0%
|
100.0%
|
100.0%
|
97.5%
|
100.0%
|
100.0%
|
100.0%
|
100.0%
|
100.0%
|
100.0%
|
IBco – baby’s interaction with others; IBpp –
baby’s interaction with self; IBh2o – baby’s
interaction with water; IBobj – baby’s interaction with
object (s); Dv – vertical displacement; Dhd – dorsal
displacement; Dhv – prone position displacement; Dmat –
displacement with material; Dac – displacement accompanied; DnonSup
– displacement without support; Iv – voluntary immersion;
Inv – involuntary immersion; Jmat – jump with material; Jac
– jump with support; JnonSup – jump without support.
Table 1a Bellack Index inter-observer results –
Socio-affective dimension.
|
Socio-affective dimension
|
|
Gaze direction
|
Emotional expressions
|
|
Lac
|
Lo
|
Lh2o
|
Lobj
|
Others
|
Laugh
|
Cry
|
Scream
|
Indifer
|
Unples
|
Others
|
|
Bellack Index
|
100%
|
92%
|
100%
|
100%
|
100%
|
100%
|
100%
|
100%
|
100%
|
100%
|
100%
|
Lac – looking at parent; Lo – looking at others;
Lh2o – looking at water; Lobj – looking at
object; Indifer – indifferent; Unples – unpleasantness.
Table 2 Bellack Index intra-observer results – Motor
behaviour dimension..
|
Children motor Behaviour dimension
|
|
Interaction
|
Skills
|
|
IBco
|
IBpp
|
IBh2o
|
IBobj
|
Dv
|
Dhd
|
Dhv
|
Dmat
|
Dac
|
DnonSup
|
Iv
|
Inv
|
Jmat
|
Jac
|
JnonSup
|
|
Bellack Index (%)
|
95
|
100
|
88
|
93
|
95
|
98
|
100
|
90
|
88
|
93
|
98
|
100
|
100
|
100
|
100
|
IBco – baby’s interaction with others; IBpp –
baby’s interaction with self; IBh2o – baby’s
interaction with water; IBobj – baby’s interaction with
object (s); Dv – vertical displacement; Dhd – dorsal
displacement; Dhv – prone position displacement; Dmat –
displacement with material; Dac – displacement accompanied; DnonSup
– displacement without support; Iv – voluntary immersion;
Inv – involuntary immersion; Jmat – jump with material; Jac
– jump with support; JnonSup – jump without support.
Table 2a Bellack Index intra-observer results –
Socio-affective dimension.
|
Socio-affective dimension
|
|
Gaze direction
|
Emotional expressions
|
|
Lac
|
Lo
|
Lh2o
|
Lobj
|
Others
|
Laugh
|
Cry
|
Scream
|
Indifer
|
Unples
|
Others
|
|
Bellack Index (%)
|
100
|
100
|
100
|
100
|
98
|
88
|
95
|
100
|
100
|
88
|
90
|
Lac – looking at parent; Lo – looking at others;
Lh2o – looking at water; Lobj – looking at
object; Indifer – indifferent; Unples – unpleasantness.
The results are expressed as relative percentage and mean value for each variable
studied. In general, the accompanied displacements (61.1%) and interaction
with other children (41.6%) were the most frequent ones ([Table 3]).
Table 3 Frequencies observed in children’s motor
behaviour dimension.
|
Motor behaviour dimension
|
|
Interaction
|
Skills
|
|
IBco (%)
|
IBpp (%)
|
IBh2o (%)
|
IBobj (%)
|
Dv (%)
|
Dhd (%)
|
Dhv (%)
|
Dmat (%)
|
Dac (%)
|
DnonSup (%)
|
Iv (%)
|
Inv (%)
|
Jmat (%)
|
Jac (%)
|
JnonSup (%)
|
|
Mean
|
41.6
|
6.7
|
9.8
|
38.6
|
28.3
|
19.5
|
30.8
|
8.3
|
61.1
|
n.o
|
1.6
|
1.7
|
0.7
|
2.4
|
2
|
|
SD
|
20.2
|
4.5
|
7.7
|
18.1
|
9.4
|
13.7
|
14.8
|
7.2
|
23.3
|
n.o
|
0.9
|
0.6
|
0
|
2.2
|
0.9
|
|
VAR
|
408.0
|
20.3
|
59.3
|
327.6
|
88.4
|
187.7
|
219.0
|
51.8
|
542.9
|
n.o
|
0.8
|
0.4
|
0.0
|
4.8
|
0.8
|
IBco – baby’s interaction with others; IBpp –
baby’s interaction with self; IBh2o – baby’s
interaction with water; IBobj – baby’s interaction with
object (s); Dv – vertical displacement; Dhd – dorsal
displacement; Dhv – prone position displacement; Dmat –
displacement with material; Dac – displacement accompanied; DnonSup
– displacement without support; Iv – voluntary immersion;
Inv – involuntary immersion; Jmat – jump with material; Jac
– jump with support; JnonSup – jump without support.
The motor behaviour dimension, and particularly the displacements and interaction
categories, were the most frequently observed tasks, whereas other specific tasks
such as submersion or jumps represent only 8.4% of the session. In terms of
the socio-affective dimension, all the key attention foci of the infants were
recorded. Children’s gaze was mainly directed at objects (30.7%),
followed by at their parents (14.1%). Indifference (11.5%) and
laughter (10.4%) were dominant during the session. ([Table 4])
Table 4 Behavioural frequencies observed in the socio-affective
dimension.
|
Socio-affective dimension
|
|
Gaze direction
|
Emotional expressions
|
|
Lac (%)
|
Lo (%)
|
Lh2o (%)
|
Lobj (%)
|
Others (%)
|
Laugh (%)
|
Cry (%)
|
Scream (%)
|
Indifer (%)
|
Unples (%)
|
Others (%)
|
|
Mean
|
14.1
|
9.5
|
6.6
|
30.7
|
9.8
|
10.4
|
0.7
|
1.8
|
11.5
|
3.8
|
5.9
|
|
SD
|
9.1
|
5.6
|
3.3
|
18.5
|
9.1
|
6.7
|
0.3
|
1.7
|
6.3
|
4
|
0
|
|
VAR
|
82.8
|
31.4
|
10.9
|
342.3
|
82.8
|
44.9
|
0.1
|
2.9
|
39.7
|
16.0
|
0.0
|
Lac – looking at parent; Lo – looking at others;
Lh2o – looking at water; Lobj – looking at
object; Indifer – indifferent; Unples – unpleasantness.
Discussion and Conclusions
Discussion and Conclusions
The aim of this study was to collect and register data of infants’ behaviour
during a swimming session through natural observation.
Displacements and interaction categories were the most frequently observed and
registered during the intervention. Also, there is an emergent need to tailor the
tasks so that children will not spend most of the session in a task that puts them
in constant physiological overload [20]
[21].
In another study performed simultaneously [20],
six of the fourteen children showed a higher HR in tasks such as dorsal
displacement, vertical displacement, and prone position displacement, which comprise
up to 78.6% of the session. Moreover, the majority of the children obtained
their maximal HR (132.43±12.720 bpm) in the prone position displacement. A
positive significant correlation between HR and the time spent in a vertical
position (r=0.99, p<0.05) was found.
The submersion skill, which might be easily associated with this kind of activity
and
therefore might imply more interest around it, only had a frequency of occurrence
in
the session of 3.3%.
From these data we were also able to make some individual analyses, which may
interestingly lead us to propose a categorization of parents. One child had
100% of frequency occurrences in the accompanied displacement category,
among other similar behaviours, revealing an attachment and constant proximity to
his parent that allows us to define this parent as a hyper-protector or
super-protector [22]
[23]. This infant was probably more anxious
than the rest of the group. The “hyper-protective” classification is
currently used in family psychology to categorize parents’ behaviour.
The findings of this study demonstrated that the children mainly manifested
expressions of indifference or passiveness that might be connected to the enormous
amount of stimulus to which the children are exposed, thus bringing them into that
state [23]. Several authors [24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28] describe the importance of stimulus and
environment to the motor, cognitive, and social development of the child. As a
matter of fact, from a social point of view, aquatic programs directed towards this
population aim not only to increase the time and quality of the interactions between
parents and their child but also to promote or extend the child's first
social interactions [29]. Regarding the
cognitive aspect of the child´s development, we emphasize the importance of
aquatic games in creating opportunities for language development and elementary
mathematical notions, as evidenced by authors [30], changing the indifferent status to a more active one through tasks
that develop cognitive skills.
A child´s behaviour is often influenced by the kind of parents involved. In
the aquatic environment, although new and discoverable, the child’s emotions
are often camouflaged and concealed from the naked eye due to the overwhelming
atmosphere they are exposed to.
It should be noted that one of the limitations of this study is the difficulty to
divide the sample according to previous experience criteria. This can eventually
explain the higher SD values obtained in certain variables (baby’s
interaction with others, baby’s interaction with object, vertical
displacement, dorsal displacement, prone position displacement, and accompanied
displacement). To address this issue, we suggest performing a longitudinal
behavioural study with narrower criteria regarding age and previous experience.
In conclusion, we consider that implementing a child-centred methodology leads to
positive behaviours during this type of session and contributes to a child’s
healthy development [31]
[32].
Notice
This article was changed according to the erratum on
December 07, 2020.
Erratum
In the above mentioned article the page numbers were
corrected, it must be E70–E75.
