Zusammenfassung
Die demografische Entwicklung führt dazu, dass sich zunehmend ältere Patienten mit
kardiovaskulären Vorerkrankungen auch größeren, operativen Eingriffen unterziehen
müssen. Interventionen, die zu einer höheren Ischämietoleranz vitaler Organe führen,
sind daher von großem Interesse. Unter Konditionierung versteht man in diesem Zusammenhang
einen Mechanismus, der es einem Organismus durch Anpassungsprozesse ermöglicht, eine
Ischämie besser zu verkraften. Je nachdem, in welchem zeitlichen Zusammenhang zur
Ischämie die protektive Intervention erfolgt, kann man Präkonditionierung (Intervention
vor der Ischämie) und Postkonditionierung (Intervention nach der Ischämie während
der Reperfusion) voneinander unterscheiden. Wenn die Ischämie in einem vom Zielorgan
entfernten Gewebe ausgelöst wird, spricht man von Remote- (Fern-) Konditionierung.
Sowohl kurzzeitige Ischämien als auch volatile Anästhetika und Opioide sind in der
Lage, Konditionierung auszulösen. Auf zellulärer Ebene sind ATP-abhängige Kaliumkanäle
und Kanäle, die die mitochondriale Permeabilität steuern, wichtige Effektoren. Die
Effektivität der Konditionierung wurde für viele Organe in tierexperimentellen Arbeiten
überzeugend gezeigt. Im klinischen Kontext gibt es zahlreiche Hinweise für eine Organprotektion
durch Konditionierung bei herzchirurgischen Patienten. Große, randomisierte und multizentrische
Studien sind aber noch erforderlich.
Abstract
Recent demographic developments challenge anaesthesiologists with an increasing number
of elderly patients with cardiovascular comorbidities undergoing major surgery. Interventions
that are capable to increase tissue tolerance against ischemia are of paramount importance.
In this context, conditioning is defined as a mechanism that fosters tissue by specific
adaptive processes to develop tolerance against a subsequent ischaemia. Dependent
upon the temporal relationship between the intervention and the index ischaemia, preconditiong
(intervention before ischaemia) is differentiated from postconditioning (intervention
upon reperfusion).
Ischaemia induced in tissue remote from the target organ is called remote preconditioning.
Both brief periods of ischaemia as well as volatile anaesthetics and opioids are able
to trigger conditioning. On a cellular level, ATP-dependent potassium channels and
the mitochondrial permeability transition pore are thought to be key effectors. Effective
conditioning has been unequivocal demonstrated for various tissues in animal experiments.
Clinical trials in patients undergoing cardiac surgery have provided evidence for
organ protection by conditioning. Large scale multicenter randomised trials, however,
are still needed.
Schlüsselwörter:
ischämische Präkonditionierung - anästhetikainduzierte Präkonditionierung - Fern-Präkonditionierung
- klinische Studien - Anästhesie
Keywords:
ischemic preconditioning - anesthetic preconditioning - remote preconditioning - clinical
studies - anaesthesia
Kernaussagen
-
Konditionierung stellt einen angeborenen, universellen und ubiquitären Schutzmechanismus
gegen Organischämie dar.
-
Ischämische, anästhetikainduzierte und Remote-Präkonditionierung haben sowohl tierexperimentell
als auch klinisch organprotektive Effekte.
-
Die zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen sind noch nicht vollständig geklärt. Auf zellulärer
Ebene sind u. a. KATP - Kanäle, mPTP, NO und ROS an der Vermittlung der Protektion beteiligt.
-
Tierexperimentell sind protektive Effekte in praktisch allen relevanten Organsystemen
gezeigt worden.
-
Klinische Studien lassen einen vorteilhaften Effekt für herzchirurgische Patienten
und Patienten in der Leberchirurgie vermuten.
-
In der klinischen Praxis kann die Effektivität der Konditionierung durch Alter, Begleiterkrankungen
(Hyperglykämie) und Co-Medikation (β-Blocker) abgeschwächt bzw. aufgehoben werden.
-
Die Remote-Konditionierung stellt eine interessante Option dar, bei Patienten praktisch
ohne Nebenwirkungen und Komplikationen eine potente Protektion wichtiger Organe perioperativ
zu realisieren.
Literatur
- 1
Higham H, Sear JW, Neill F, Sear YM, Foex P..
Peri-operative silent myocardial ischaemia and long-term adverse outcomes in non-cardiac
surgical patients.
Anaesthesia.
2001;
56
630-637
- 2
Zaugg M, Lucchinetti E, Uecker M, Pasch T, Schaub MC..
Anaesthetics and cardiac preconditioning. Part I. Signalling and cytoprotective mechanisms.
Br J Anaesth.
2003;
91
551-565
- 3
Burley DS, Baxter GF..
Pharmacological targets revealed by myocardial postconditioning.
Curr Opin Pharmacol.
2009;
9
177-188
- 4
Schaper W..
Ischemic preconditioning, remembrances of things past and future.
Basic Res Cardiol.
1996;
91
8-11
- 5
Murry CE, Jennings RB, Reimer KA..
Preconditioning with ischemia: a delay of lethal cell injury in ischemic myocardium.
Circulation.
1986;
74
1124-1136
- 6
Na HS, Kim YI, Yoon YW, Han HC, Nahm SH, Hong SK..
Ventricular premature beat-driven intermittent restoration of coronary blood flow
reduces the incidence of reperfusion-induced ventricular fibrillation in a cat model
of regional ischemia.
Am Heart J.
1996;
132
78-83
- 7
Zhao ZQ, Corvera JS, Halkos ME, Kerendi F, Wang NP, Guyton RA, Vinten-Johansen J..
Inhibition of myocardial injury by ischemic postconditioning during reperfusion: comparison
with ischemic preconditioning.
Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol.
2003;
285
579-588
- 8
Cremer J, Steinhoff G, Karck M, Ahnsell T, Brandt M, Teebken OE, Hollander D, Haverich A..
Ischemic preconditioning prior to myocardial protection with cold blood cardioplegia
in coronary surgery.
Eur J Cardiothorac Surg.
1997;
12
753-758
- 9
Teoh LK, Grant R, Hulf JA, Pugsley WB, Yellon DM..
The effect of preconditioning (ischemic and pharmacological) on myocardial necrosis
following coronary artery bypass graft surgery.
Cardiovasc Res.
2002;
53
175-180
- 10
Wu ZK, Iivainen T, Pehkonen E, Laurikka J, Tarkka MR..
Ischemic preconditioning suppresses ventricular tachyarrhythmias after myocardial
revascularization.
Circulation.
2002;
106
3091-3096
- 11
Luo W, Li B, Chen R, Huang R, Lin G..
Effect of ischemic postconditioning in adult valve replacement.
Eur J Cardiothorac Surg.
2008;
33
203-208
- 12
Luo W, Li B, Lin G, Huang R..
Postconditioning in cardiac surgery for tetralogy of Fallot.
J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg.
2007;
133
1373-1374
- 13
Clavien PA, Selzner M, Rudiger HA, Graf R, Kadry Z, Rousson V, Jochum W..
A prospective randomized study in 100 consecutive patients undergoing major liver
resection with versus without ischemic preconditioning.
Ann Surg.
2003;
238
51-52
- 14
Clavien PA, Yadav S, Sindram D, Bentley RC..
Protective effects of ischemic preconditioning for liver resection performed under
inflow occlusion in humans.
Ann Surg.
2000;
232
155-162
- 15
Azoulay D, Lucidi V, Andreani P et al..
Ischemic preconditioning for major liver resection under vascular exclusion of the
liver preserving the caval flow: a randomized prospective study.
J Am Coll Surg.
2006;
202
203-211
- 16
Amador A, Grande L, Marti J, Deulofeu R et al..
Ischemic pre-conditioning in deceased donor liver transplantation: a prospective randomized
clinical trial.
Am J Transplant.
2007;
7
2180-2189
- 17
Wegener S, Gottschalk B, Jovanovic V et al..
Transient ischemic attacks before ischemic stroke: preconditioning the human brain?
A multicenter magnetic resonance imaging study.
Stroke.
2004;
35
616-621
- 18
Kersten JR, Schmeling TJ, Pagel PS, Gross GJ, Warltier DC..
Isoflurane mimics ischemic preconditioning via activation of K(ATP) channels: reduction
of myocardial infarct size with an acute memory phase.
Anesthesiology.
1997;
87
361-370
- 19
Zhao P, Zuo Z..
Isoflurane preconditioning induces neuroprotection that is inducible nitric oxide
synthase-dependent in neonatal rats.
Anesthesiology.
2004;
101
695-703
- 20
Liu R, Ishibe Y, Ueda M, Hang Y..
Isoflurane administration before ischemia and during reperfusion attenuates ischemia/reperfusion-induced
injury of isolated rabbit lungs.
Anesth Analg.
1999;
89
561-565
- 21
Kon S, Imai M, Inaba H..
Isoflurane attenuates early neutrophil-independent hypoxia-reoxygenation injuries
in the reperfused liver in fasted rats.
Anesthesiology.
1997;
86
128-136
- 22
Zaugg M, Lucchinetti E, Spahn DR, Pasch T, Garcia C, Schaub MC..
Differential effects of anesthetics on mitochondrial K(ATP) channel activity and cardiomyocyte
protection.
Anesthesiology.
2002;
97
15-23
- 23
Weber NC, Toma O, Wolter JI, Obal D, Mullenheim J, Preckel B, Schlack W..
The noble gas xenon induces pharmacological preconditioning in the rat heart in vivo
via induction of PKC-epsilon and p38 MAPK.
Br J Pharmacol.
2005;
144
123-132
- 24
Huhn R, Heinen A, Weber NC, Kerindongo RP, Oei GT, Hollmann MW, Schlack W, Preckel B..
Helium-induced early preconditioning and postconditioning are abolished in obese Zucker
rats in vivo.
J Pharmacol Exp Ther.
2009;
329
600-607
- 25
Schlack W, Hollmann M, Stunneck J, Thamer V..
Effect of halothane on myocardial reoxygenation injury in the isolated rat heart.
Br J Anaesth.
1996;
76
860-867
- 26
Preckel B, Schlack W, Comfere T, Obal D, Barthel H, Thamer V..
Effects of enflurane, isoflurane, sevoflurane and desflurane on reperfusion injury
after regional myocardial ischaemia in the rabbit heart in vivo.
Br J Anaesth.
1998;
81
905-912
- 27
Preckel B, Mullenheim J, Moloschavij A, Thamer V, Schlack W..
Xenon administration during early reperfusion reduces infarct size after regional
ischemia in the rabbit heart in vivo.
Anesth Analg.
2000;
91
1327-1332
- 28
Gross ER, Hsu AK, Gross GJ..
GSK3beta inhibition and K(ATP) channel opening mediate acute opioid-induced cardioprotection
at reperfusion.
Basic Res Cardiol.
2007;
102
341-349
- 29
Belhomme D, Peynet J, Louzy M, Launay JM, Kitakaze M, Menasche P..
Evidence for preconditioning by isoflurane in coronary artery bypass graft surgery.
Circulation.
1999;
100
340-344
- 30
De Hert SG, ten Broecke PW, Mertens E, Van Sommeren EW, De Blier IG, Stockman BA,
Rodrigus IE..
Sevoflurane but not propofol preserves myocardial function in coronary surgery patients.
Anesthesiology.
2002;
97
42-49
- 31
De Hert SG, Van der Linden PJ, Cromheecke S et al..
Cardioprotective properties of sevoflurane in patients undergoing coronary surgery
with cardiopulmonary bypass are related to the modalities of its administration.
Anesthesiology.
2004;
101
299-310
- 32
Murphy GS, Szokol JW, Marymont JH, Avram MJ, Vender JS..
Opioids and cardioprotection: the impact of morphine and fentanyl on recovery of ventricular
function after cardiopulmonary bypass.
J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth.
2006;
20
493-502
- 33
Zaugg M..
Is protection by inhalation agents volatile? Controversies in cardioprotection.
Br J Anaesth.
2007;
99
603-606
- 34
Lange M, Smul TM, Blomeyer CA, Redel A, Klotz KN, Roewer N, Kehl F..
Role of the beta1-adrenergic pathway in anesthetic and ischemic preconditioning against
myocardial infarction in the rabbit heart in vivo.
Anesthesiology.
2006;
105
503-510
- 35
Liu L, Zhu J, Glass PS, Brink PR, Rampil IJ, Rebecchi MJ..
Age-associated changes in cardiac gene expression after preconditioning.
Anesthesiology.
2009;
111
1052-1064
- 36
Nguyen LT, Rebecchi MJ, Moore LC, Glass PS, Brink PR, Liu L..
Attenuation of isoflurane-induced preconditioning and reactive oxygen species production
in the senescent rat heart.
Anesth Analg.
2008;
107
776-782
- 37
Kehl F, Krolikowski JG, Mraovic B, Pagel PS, Warltier DC, Kersten JR..
Hyperglycemia prevents isoflurane-induced preconditioning against myocardial infarction.
Anesthesiology.
2002;
96
183-188
- 38
Bein B, Renner J, Caliebe D, Hanss R, Bauer M, Fraund S, Scholz J..
The effects of interrupted or continuous administration of sevoflurane on preconditioning
before cardio-pulmonary bypass in coronary artery surgery: comparison with continuous
propofol.
Anaesthesia.
2008;
63
1046-1055
- 39
Frassdorf J, Borowski A, Ebel D et al..
Impact of preconditioning protocol on anesthetic-induced cardioprotection in patients
having coronary artery bypass surgery.
J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg.
2009;
137
1-2
- 40
De Hert SG, Van der Linden PJ, Cromheecke S et al..
Choice of primary anesthetic regimen can influence intensive care unit length of stay
after coronary surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass.
Anesthesiology.
2004;
101
9-20
- 41
Garcia C, Julier K, Bestmann L, Zollinger A, von Segesser LK, Pasch T, Spahn DR, Zaugg M..
Preconditioning with sevoflurane decreases PECAM-1 expression and improves one-year
cardiovascular outcome in coronary artery bypass graft surgery.
Br J Anaesth.
2005;
94
159-165
- 42
De Hert S, Vlasselaers D, Barbe R et al..
A comparison of volatile and non volatile agents for cardioprotection during on-pump
coronary surgery.
Anaesthesia.
2009;
64
953-960
- 43
Landoni G, Biondi-Zoccai GG, Zangrillo A et al..
Desflurane and sevoflurane in cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical
trials.
J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth.
2007;
21
502-511
- 44
Jakobsen CJ, Berg H, Hindsholm KB, Faddy N, Sloth E..
The influence of propofol versus sevoflurane anesthesia on outcome in 10,535 cardiac
surgical procedures.
J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth.
2007;
21
664-671
- 45
Bignami E, Biondi-Zoccai G, Landoni G et al..
Volatile anesthetics reduce mortality in cardiac surgery.
J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth.
2009;
23
594-599
- 46
Przyklenk K, Bauer B, Ovize M, Kloner RA, Whittaker P..
Regional ischemic 'preconditioning' protects remote virgin myocardium from subsequent
sustained coronary occlusion.
Circulation.
1993;
87
893-899
- 47
Gho BC, Schoemaker RG, van den Doel MA, Duncker DJ, Verdouw PD..
Myocardial protection by brief ischemia in noncardiac tissue.
Circulation.
1996;
94
2193-2200
- 48
Hausenloy DJ, Yellon DM..
Remote ischaemic preconditioning: underlying mechanisms and clinical application.
Cardiovasc Res.
2008;
79
377-386
- 49
Loukogeorgakis SP, Panagiotidou AT, Broadhead MW, Donald A, Deanfield JE, MacAllister RJ..
Remote ischemic preconditioning provides early and late protection against endothelial
ischemia-reperfusion injury in humans: role of the autonomic nervous system.
J Am Coll Cardiol.
2005;
46
450-456
- 50
Cheung MM, Kharbanda RK, Konstantinov IE et al..
Randomized controlled trial of the effects of remote ischemic preconditioning on children
undergoing cardiac surgery: first clinical application in humans.
J Am Coll Cardiol.
2006;
47
2277-2282
- 51
Hausenloy DJ, Mwamure PK, Venugopal V et al..
Effect of remote ischaemic preconditioning on myocardial injury in patients undergoing
coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a randomised controlled trial.
Lancet.
2007;
370
575-579
- 52
Ali ZA, Callaghan CJ, Lim E et al..
Remote ischemic preconditioning reduces myocardial and renal injury after elective
abdominal aortic aneurysm repair: a randomized controlled trial.
Circulation.
2007;
116
98-105
- 53
Andreka G, Vertesaljai M, Szantho G et al..
Remote ischaemic postconditioning protects the heart during acute myocardial infarction
in pigs.
Heart.
2007;
93
749-752
PD Dr. med. Berthold Bein
Dr. med. Patrick Meybohm
Email: bein@anaesthesie.uni-kiel.de
Email: meybohm@anaesthesie.uni-kiel.de