Arterial and Venous Thrombosis in Endocrine Diseases

Bregje van Zaane; Danka J. F. Stuijver; Alessandro Squizzato; Victor E. A. Gerdes

doi:10.1055/s-0033-1343889

Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis, Table of Contents

Semin Thromb Hemost 2013; 39(05): 489-495
DOI: 10.1055/s-0033-1343889

Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Arterial and Venous Thrombosis in Endocrine Diseases

Authors

Bregje van Zaane

¹Department of Internal Medicine, Slotervaartziekenhuis, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

²Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Danka J. F. Stuijver

¹Department of Internal Medicine, Slotervaartziekenhuis, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

²Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Alessandro Squizzato

³Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Research Center on Thromboembolic Disorders and Antithrombotic Therapies, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
Victor E. A. Gerdes

¹Department of Internal Medicine, Slotervaartziekenhuis, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

²Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Abstract

Endocrine diseases have been associated with cardiovascular events. Both altered coagulation and fibrinolysis markers and thrombotic disorders have been described in several endocrine diseases. This review summarizes the evidence on the influence of thyroid diseases, cortisol excess and deficiency, pheochromocytoma, hyperparathyroidism, hyperaldosteronism, hyperprolactinemia, and growth hormone excess and deficiency; on parameters of hemostasis; and on arterial and venous thrombotic events. All these endocrine diseases do have, or may have, influence either on hemostasis or on the risk of thrombotic events. Future studies are needed to establish the clinical relevance of these associations.

Keywords

thrombosis - thyroid hormone - cortisol - parathyroid hormone - aldosterone - pheochromocytoma - hyperprolactinemia - growth hormone

Full Text

References

References
1 Flynn RW, Macdonald TM, Jung RT, Morris AD, Leese GP. Mortality and vascular outcomes in patients treated for thyroid dysfunction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91 (6) 2159-2164
2 Osman F, Franklyn JA, Holder RL, Sheppard MC, Gammage MD. Cardiovascular manifestations of hyperthyroidism before and after antithyroid therapy: a matched case-control study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49 (1) 71-81
3 van Zaane B, Reuwer AQ, Büller HR, Kastelein JJ, Gerdes VE, Twickler MT. Hormones and cardiovascular disease: a shift in paradigm with clinical consequences?. Semin Thromb Hemost 2009; 35 (5) 478-487
4 Völzke H, Schwahn C, Wallaschofski H, Dörr M. Review: The association of thyroid dysfunction with all-cause and circulatory mortality: is there a causal relationship?. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92 (7) 2421-2429
5 Stuijver DJ, van Zaane B, Romualdi E, Brandjes DP, Gerdes VE, Squizzato A. The effect of hyperthyroidism on procoagulant, anticoagulant and fibrinolytic factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thromb Haemost 2012; 108 (6) 1077-1088
6 Baumgartner-Parzer SM, Wagner L, Reining G , et al. Increase by tri-iodothyronine of endothelin-1, fibronectin and von Willebrand factor in cultured endothelial cells. J Endocrinol 1997; 154 (2) 231-239
7 Shih CH, Chen SL, Yen CC , et al. Thyroid hormone receptor-dependent transcriptional regulation of fibrinogen and coagulation proteins. Endocrinology 2004; 145 (6) 2804-2814
8 Hooper JM, Stuijver DJ, Orme SM , et al. Thyroid dysfunction and fibrin network structure: a mechanism for increased thrombotic risk in hyperthyroid individuals. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97 (5) 1463-1473
9 Collet TH, Gussekloo J, Bauer DC , et al; Thyroid Studies Collaboration. Subclinical hyperthyroidism and the risk of coronary heart disease and mortality. Arch Intern Med 2012; 172 (10) 799-809
10 Lin HC, Yang LY, Kang JH. Increased risk of pulmonary embolism among patients with hyperthyroidism: a 5-year follow-up study. J Thromb Haemost 2010; 8 (10) 2176-2181
11 Kootte RS, Stuijver DJF, Dekkers OM , et al. The incidence of venous thromboembolism in patients with overt hyperthyroidism: a retrospective multicentre cohort study. Thromb Haemost 2012; 107 (3) 417-422
12 van Zaane B, Squizzato A, Huijgen R , et al. Increasing levels of free thyroxine as a risk factor for a first venous thrombosis: a case-control study. Blood 2010; 115 (22) 4344-4349
13 Debeij J, Dekkers OM, Asvold BO , et al. Increased levels of free thyroxine and risk of venous thrombosis in a large population-based prospective study. J Thromb Haemost 2012; 10 (8) 1539-1546
14 Manfredi E, van Zaane B, Gerdes VE, Brandjes DP, Squizzato A. Hypothyroidism and acquired von Willebrand's syndrome: a systematic review. Haemophilia 2008; 14 (3) 423-433
15 Stuijver DJF. The Hormonal Influence on the Haemostatic System and the Risk of Thrombosis [thesis]. University of Amsterdam: 2012. . ISBN 978-94-6191-460-6
16 Squizzato A, Romualdi E, Büller HR, Gerdes VE. Clinical review: Thyroid dysfunction and effects on coagulation and fibrinolysis: a systematic review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92 (7) 2415-2420
17 Klein I, Ojamaa K. Thyroid hormone and the cardiovascular system. N Engl J Med 2001; 344 (7) 501-509
18 Duntas LH, Brenta G. The effect of thyroid disorders on lipid levels and metabolism. Med Clin North Am 2012; 96 (2) 269-281
19 Ochs N, Auer R, Bauer DC , et al. Meta-analysis: subclinical thyroid dysfunction and the risk for coronary heart disease and mortality. Ann Intern Med 2008; 148 (11) 832-845
20 Ladenson PW, Kristensen JD, Ridgway EC , et al. Use of the thyroid hormone analogue eprotirome in statin-treated dyslipidemia. N Engl J Med 2010; 362 (10) 906-916
21 Moreno M, de Lange P, Lombardi A, Silvestri E, Lanni A, Goglia F. Metabolic effects of thyroid hormone derivatives. Thyroid 2008; 18 (2) 239-253
22 Bolland MJ, Holdaway IM, Berkeley JE , et al. Mortality and morbidity in Cushing's syndrome in New Zealand. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2011; 75 (4) 436-442
23 Clayton RN. Mortality in Cushing's disease. Neuroendocrinology 2010; 92 (Suppl. 01) 71-76
24 Baykan M, Erem C, Gedikli O , et al. Impairment of flow-mediated vasodilatation of brachial artery in patients with Cushing's syndrome. Endocrine 2007; 31 (3) 300-304
25 Faggiano A, Pivonello R, Spiezia S , et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and common carotid artery caliber and stiffness in patients with Cushing's disease during active disease and 1 year after disease remission. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88 (6) 2527-2533
26 Van Zaane B, Nur E, Squizzato A , et al. Hypercoagulable state in Cushing's syndrome: a systematic review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94 (8) 2743-2750
27 Kastelan D, Dusek T, Kraljevic I , et al. Hypercoagulability in Cushing's syndrome: the role of specific haemostatic and fibrinolytic markers. Endocrine 2009; 36 (1) 70-74
28 Manetti L, Bogazzi F, Giovannetti C , et al. Changes in coagulation indexes and occurrence of venous thromboembolism in patients with Cushing's syndrome: results from a prospective study before and after surgery. Eur J Endocrinol 2010; 163 (5) 783-791
29 van der Pas R, de Bruin C, Leebeek FW , et al. The hypercoagulable state in Cushing's disease is associated with increased levels of procoagulant factors and impaired fibrinolysis, but is not reversible after short-term biochemical remission induced by medical therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97 (4) 1303-1310
30 Boscaro M, Sonino N, Scarda A , et al. Anticoagulant prophylaxis markedly reduces thromboembolic complications in Cushing's syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87 (8) 3662-3666
31 Koutroumpi S, Daidone V, Sartori MT , et al. Venous thromboembolism in patients with Cushing's syndrome: need of a careful investigation of the prothrombotic risk profile. Pituitary 2012; (e-pub ahead of print)
32 Stuijver DJ, van Zaane B, Feelders RA , et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in patients with Cushing's syndrome: a multicenter cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96 (11) 3525-3532
33 Wei L, MacDonald TM, Walker BR. Taking glucocorticoids by prescription is associated with subsequent cardiovascular disease. Ann Intern Med 2004; 141 (10) 764-770
34 Fardet L, Petersen I, Nazareth I. Risk of cardiovascular events in people prescribed glucocorticoids with iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome: cohort study. BMJ 2012; 345: e4928
35 Calvo-Alén J, Toloza SM, Fernández M , et al; LUMINA Study Group. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA). XXV. Smoking, older age, disease activity, lupus anticoagulant, and glucocorticoid dose as risk factors for the occurrence of venous thrombosis in lupus patients. Arthritis Rheum 2005; 52 (7) 2060-2068
36 Stolz E, Klötzsch C, Schlachetzki F, Rahimi A. High-dose corticosteroid treatment is associated with an increased risk of developing cerebral venous thrombosis. Eur Neurol 2003; 49 (4) 247-248
37 Stuijver DJ, Majoor CJ, van Zaane B , et al. Use of oral glucocorticoids and the risk of pulmonary embolism: a population-based case-control study. Chest 2012; (e-pub ahead of print)
38 Bergthorsdottir R, Leonsson-Zachrisson M, Odén A, Johannsson G. Premature mortality in patients with Addison's disease: a population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91 (12) 4849-4853
39 Hochberg Z, Pacak K, Chrousos GP. Endocrine withdrawal syndromes. Endocr Rev 2003; 24 (4) 523-538
40 van den Akker EL, Koper JW, van Rossum EF , et al. Glucocorticoid receptor gene and risk of cardiovascular disease. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168 (1) 33-39
41 Presotto F, Fornasini F, Betterle C, Federspil G, Rossato M. Acute adrenal failure as the heralding symptom of primary antiphospholipid syndrome: report of a case and review of the literature. Eur J Endocrinol 2005; 153 (4) 507-514
42 Cervera R, Piette JC, Font J , et al; Euro-Phospholipid Project Group. Antiphospholipid syndrome: clinical and immunologic manifestations and patterns of disease expression in a cohort of 1,000 patients. Arthritis Rheum 2002; 46 (4) 1019-1027
43 Schürmeyer TH, Engeroff B, Dralle H, von zur Mühlen A. Cardiological effects of catecholamine-secreting tumours. Eur J Clin Invest 1997; 27 (3) 189-195
44 Higashi Y, Sasaki S, Nakagawa K , et al. Excess norepinephrine impairs both endothelium-dependent and -independent vasodilation in patients with pheochromocytoma. Hypertension 2002; 39 (2, Pt 2) 513-518
45 Holaj R, Zelinka T, Wichterle D , et al. Increased carotid intima-media thickness in patients with pheochromocytoma in comparison to essential hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 2009; 23 (5) 350-358
46 von Känel R, Dimsdale JE. Effects of sympathetic activation by adrenergic infusions on hemostasis in vivo. Eur J Haematol 2000; 65 (6) 357-369
47 de Peuter OR, Souverein PC, Klungel OH, Büller HR, de Boer A, Kamphuisen PW. Non-selective vs. selective beta-blocker treatment and the risk of thrombo-embolic events in patients with heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2011; 13 (2) 220-226
48 Hoppener MR, Kraaijenhagen RA, Hutten BA, Büller HR, Peters RJ, Levi M. Beta-receptor blockade decreases elevated plasma levels of factor VIII:C in patients with deep vein thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost 2004; 2 (8) 1316-1320
49 Farahnak P, Lärfars G, Sten-Linder M, Nilsson IL. Mild primary hyperparathyroidism: vitamin D deficiency and cardiovascular risk markers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96 (7) 2112-2118
50 Hagström E, Hellman P, Larsson TE , et al. Plasma parathyroid hormone and the risk of cardiovascular mortality in the community. Circulation 2009; 119 (21) 2765-2771
51 Vestergaard P, Mollerup CL, Frøkjaer VG, Christiansen P, Blichert-Toft M, Mosekilde L. Cardiovascular events before and after surgery for primary hyperparathyroidism. World J Surg 2003; 27 (2) 216-222
52 Floege J, Kim J, Ireland E , et al; ARO Investigators. Serum iPTH, calcium and phosphate, and the risk of mortality in a European haemodialysis population. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2011; 26 (6) 1948-1955
53 Chertow GM, Block GA, Correa-Rotter R , et al; EVOLVE Trial Investigators. Effect of cinacalcet on cardiovascular disease in patients undergoing dialysis. N Engl J Med 2012; 367 (26) 2482-2494
54 Chertok-Shacham E, Ishay A, Lavi I, Luboshitzky R. Biomarkers of hypercoagulability and inflammation in primary hyperparathyroidism. Med Sci Monit 2008; 14 (12) CR628-CR632
55 Erem C, Kocak M, Hacihasanoglu A, Yilmaz M, Saglam F, Ersoz HO. Blood coagulation, fibrinolysis and lipid profile in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism: increased plasma factor VII and X activities and D-Dimer levels. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2008; 116 (10) 619-624
56 Erem C, Kocak M, Nuhoglu I, Yilmaz M, Ucuncu O. Increased plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, decreased tissue factor pathway inhibitor, and unchanged thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor levels in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol 2009; 160 (5) 863-868
57 Viganò G, Gotti E, Comberti E, Giangrande A, Trevisan R, Remuzzi G. Hyperparathyroidism does not influence the abnormal primary haemostasis in patients with chronic renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1989; 4 (11) 971-974
58 Gromotowicz A, Szemraj J, Stankiewicz A , et al. Study of the mechanisms of aldosterone prothrombotic effect in rats. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2011; 12 (4) 430-439
59 Ducros E, Berthaut A, Mirshahi SS , et al. Aldosterone modifies hemostasis via upregulation of the protein-C receptor in human vascular endothelium. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 373 (2) 192-196
60 Ma J, Albornoz F, Yu C, Byrne DW, Vaughan DE, Brown NJ. Differing effects of mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent and -independent potassium-sparing diuretics on fibrinolytic balance. Hypertension 2005; 46 (2) 313-320
61 Milliez P, Girerd X, Plouin PF, Blacher J, Safar ME, Mourad JJ. Evidence for an increased rate of cardiovascular events in patients with primary aldosteronism. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45 (8) 1243-1248
62 Verhamme K, Mosis G, Dieleman J, Stricker B, Sturkenboom M. Spironolactone and risk of upper gastrointestinal events: population based case-control study. BMJ 2006; 333 (7563) 330
63 Erem C, Kocak M, Nuhoglu I, Yılmaz M, Ucuncu O. Blood coagulation, fibrinolysis and lipid profile in patients with prolactinoma. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2010; 73 (4) 502-507
64 Wallaschofski H, Kobsar A, Koksch M , et al. Prolactin receptor signaling during platelet activation. Horm Metab Res 2003; 35 (4) 228-235
65 Reuwer AQ, Nieuwland R, Fernandez I , et al. Prolactin does not affect human platelet aggregation or secretion. Thromb Haemost 2009; 101 (6) 1119-1127
66 van Zaane B, Squizzato A, Reuwer AQ , et al. Prolactin and venous thrombosis: indications for a novel risk factor?. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2011; 31 (3) 672-677
67 Stuijver DJ, Debeij J, van Zaane B , et al. Levels of prolactin in relation to coagulation factors and risk of venous thrombosis. Results of a large population-based case-control study (MEGA-study). Thromb Haemost 2012; 108 (3) 499-507
68 Landin-Wilhelmsen K, Tengborn L, Wilhelmsen L, Bengtsson BA. Elevated fibrinogen levels decrease following treatment of acromegaly. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1997; 46 (1) 69-74
69 Erem C, Nuhoglu I, Kocak M , et al. Blood coagulation and fibrinolysis in patients with acromegaly: increased plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), decreased tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), and an inverse correlation between growth hormone and TFPI. Endocrine 2008; 33 (3) 270-276
70 Delaroudis SP, Efstathiadou ZA, Koukoulis GN , et al. Amelioration of cardiovascular risk factors with partial biochemical control of acromegaly. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2008; 69 (2) 279-284
71 Palmeiro CR, Anand R, Dardi IK, Balasubramaniyam N, Schwarcz MD, Weiss IA. Growth hormone and the cardiovascular system. Cardiol Rev 2012; 20 (4) 197-207
72 Elhadd TA, Abdu TA, Oxtoby J , et al. Biochemical and biophysical markers of endothelial dysfunction in adults with hypopituitarism and severe GH deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86 (9) 4223-4232
73 Gómez JM, Sahún M, Vila R , et al. Elevation of E-selectin concentrations may correlate with potential endothelial dysfunction in individuals with hypopituitarism during therapy with growth hormone. Curr Neurovasc Res 2007; 4 (1) 55-62
74 Kvasnicka J, Marek J, Kvasnicka T , et al. Increase of adhesion molecules, fibrinogen, type-1 plasminogen activator inhibitor and orosomucoid in growth hormone (GH) deficient adults and their modulation by recombinant human GH replacement. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2000; 52 (5) 543-548
75 Sartorio A, Cattaneo M, Bucciarelli P , et al. Alterations of haemostatic and fibrinolytic markers in adult patients with growth hormone deficiency and with acromegaly. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2000; 108 (7) 486-492
76 Devin JK, Blevins Jr LS, Verity DK , et al. Markedly impaired fibrinolytic balance contributes to cardiovascular risk in adults with growth hormone deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92 (9) 3633-3639