Download PDF
Diabetologie und Stoffwechsel 2014; 9(S 02): S125-S135
DOI: 10.1055/s-0034-1385406
DDG Praxisempfehlung
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Therapie des Typ-1-Diabetes [1]

Kurzfassung 1. Auflage, August 2011 Version 1.0 vom 09.08.2011
B. O. Böhm
1   Klinik für Innere Medizin I, Universität Ulm
,
M. Dreyer
2   Asklepios Westklinikum Hamburg
,
A. Fritsche
3   IV. Medizinische Klinik, Universität Tübingen
,
M. Füchtenbusch
4   Diabetesschwerpunktpraxis München
,
S. Gölz
5   Diabetesschwerpunktpraxis Esslingen
,
S. Martin
5   Sana-Kliniken Düsseldorf
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
22 January 2015 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

1. Anliegen und Ziele

Diese Leitlinie richtet sich an alle Berufsgruppen, die Menschen mit Typ-1-Diabetes betreuen, dies sind vor allem niedergelassene Diabetologen, Allgemeinärzte und Internisten, im Krankenhaus tätige Ärzte (Diabetesspezialisten, Anästhesisten, Chirurgen, Radiologen), Pflegende (im OP-Bereich, auf den Stationen oder im Bereich der Diagnostik) sowie ambulant oder stationär tätige DiabetesberaterInnen. Darüber hinaus richtet sich die Leitlinie an alle Menschen mit Typ-1-Diabetes sowie an übergeordnete Institutionen, wie Krankenkassen oder medizinische Dienste.

Mit der Erstellung und Aktualisierung dieser Leitlinien verfolgen die Autoren die folgenden Ziele:

  • Die Rate diabetesassoziierter Komplikationen und diabetesassoziierter Folgeschäden zu senken. Hierbei wird erstmals auch die Diagnostik und Behandlung von Lipodystrophien beschrieben.

  • Die Lebensqualität von Menschen mit Typ-1-Diabetes zu verbessern.

  • Zu einer angemessenen Versorgung von Menschen mit Typ-1-Diabetes im Krankenhaus sowohl auf Normalstationen als auch auf Intensivstationen beizutragen. Insbesondere soll die Implementierung sicherer Protokolle zum Schutz vor Hypoglykämien bei intravenöser Insulintherapie gefördert werden.

  • Eine korrekte Behandlung von Akutkomplikationen sicherzustellen und damit das Risiko von Komplikationen aufgrund der Behandlung zu senken.

  • Die adäquate Schulung von Menschen mit Typ-1-Diabetes besonders im ambulanten Bereich stärker zu verankern.

1 Herausgeber: S. Matthaei, M. Kellerer


 

  • 13. Literatur

  • 1 Johnson DD, Palumbo PJ, Chu CP. Diabetic ketoacidosis in a community-based population. Mayo Clin Proc 1980; 55: 83-88 EK III
    Google Scholar
  • 2 Martin S, Kolb H. Pathogenese und Immuntherapie des Diabetes mellitus Typ 1. Diabet Stoffw 1998; 7: 17-24 EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 3 Bottazzo GF, Florin-Christensen A, Doniach D. Islet-cell antibodies in diabetes mellitus with autoimmune polyendocrine deficiencies. Lancet 1974; 2: 1279-1283 EK III
    Google Scholar
  • 4 Palmer JP, Asplin CM, Clemons P et al. Insulin antibodies in insulin-dependent diabetics before insulin treatment. Science 1983; 222: 1337-1339 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Wiest-Ladenburger U, Hartmann R, Hartmann U et al. Combined analysis and single-step detection of GAD65 and IA2 autoantibodies in IDDM can replace the histochemical islet cell antibody test. Diabetes 1997; 46: 565-571 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Bingley PJ, Bonifacio E, Mueller PW. Diabetes Antibody Standardization Program: first assay proficiency evaluation. Diabetes 2003; 52: 1128-1136 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Törn C, Mueller PW, Schlosser M et al. Diabetes Antibody Standardization Program: evaluation of assays for autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase and islet antigen-2. Diabetologia 2008; 51: 846-852 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Schlosser M, Mueller PW, Torn C et al. Diabetes Antibody Standardization Program: evaluation of assays for insulin autoantibodies. Diabetologia 2010; 53: 2611-2620 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Imagawa A, Hanafusa T, Miyagawa J et al. A novel subtype of type 1 diabetes mellitus characterized by a rapid onset and an absence of diabetes-related antibodies. Osaka IDDM Study Group. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 301-307 EK III
    Google Scholar
  • 10 Scherbaum WA, Kiess W. Deutsche Diabetes-Gesellschaft (DDG). (eds). Definition, Klassifikation und Diagnostik des Diabetes mellitus. http://http://www.deutsche-diabetes-gesellschaft.de/redaktion/mitteilungen/leitlinien/EBL_Klassifikation_Update_2004.pdf EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 11 American Diabetes Association (ADA). American Diabetes Association: clinical practice recommendations 1997. Diabetes Care 1997; 20 S1-S70 EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 12 Alberti KG, Zimmet PZ. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus provisional report of a WHO consultation. Diabet Med 1998; 15: 539-553 EK IV
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 DCCT Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 977-986 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Wang PH, Lau J, Chalmers TC. Meta-analysis of effects of intensive blood-glucose control on late complications of type I diabetes. Lancet 1993; 341: 1306-1309 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 15 DCCT Research Group. Progression of retinopathy with intensive versus conventional treatment in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Ophthalmology 1995; 102: 647-661 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Fanelli CG, Epifano L, Rambotti AM et al. Meticulous prevention of hypoglycemia normalizes the glycemic thresholds and magnitude of most of neuroendocrine responses to, symptoms of, and cognitive function during hypoglycemia in intensively treated patients with short-term IDDM. Diabetes 1993; 42: 1683-1689 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Fritsche A, Stefan N, Haring H et al. Avoidance of hypoglycemia restores hypoglycemia awareness by increasing beta-adrenergic sensitivity in type 1 diabetes. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 729-736 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Lachin JM, Genuth S, Nathan DM et al. Effect of glycemic exposure on the risk of microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial – revisited. Diabetes 2008; 57: 995-1001 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 19 White NH, Sun W, Cleary PA et al. Prolonged effect of intensive therapy on the risk of retinopathy complications in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: 10 years after the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Arch Ophthalmol 2008; 126: 1707-1715 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY et al. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 2643-2653 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 21 de Boer I, Kestenbaum B, Rue TC et al. Insulin therapy, hyperglycemia, and hypertension in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 1867-1873 EK I b und EK II a
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Cleary PA, Orchard TJ, Genuth S et al. The effect of intensive glycemic treatment on coronary artery calcification in type 1 diabetic participants of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (DCCT/EDIC) Study. Diabetes 2006; 55: 3556-3565 EK III
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Retnakaran R, Hochman J, DeVries JH et al. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections: the impact of baseline A1c. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 2880-2886 EK I a
    Google Scholar
  • 24 Fatourechi MM, Kudva YC, Murad MH et al. Clinical review: Hypoglycemia with intensive insulin therapy: a systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized trials of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 729-740 EK I a
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Jeitler K, Horvath K, Berghold A et al. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily insulin injections in patients with diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2008; 51: 941-951 EK I a
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Pickup JC, Sutton AJ. Severe hypoglycaemia and glycaemic control in Type 1 diabetes: meta-analysis of multiple daily insulin injections compared with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion. Diabet Med 2008; 25: 765-774 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Bolli GB, Kerr D, Thomas R et al. Comparison of a multiple daily insulin injection regimen (basal once-daily glargine plus mealtime lispro) and continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (lispro) in type 1 diabetes: a randomized open parallel multicenter study. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 1170-1176 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Mukhopadhyay A, Farrell T, Fraser RB et al. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion vs intensive conventional insulin therapy in pregnant diabetic women: a systematic review and metaanalysis of randomized, controlled trials. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 197: 447-456 EK I a
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Farrar D, Tuffnell DJ, West J. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections of insulin for pregnant women with diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007; CD005542 EK I a
    Google Scholar
  • 30 Chen R, Ben-Haroush A, Weismann-Brenner A et al. Level of glycemic control and pregnancy outcome in type 1 diabetes: a comparison between multiple daily insulin injections and continuous subcutaneous insulin infusions. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 197: 404-405 EK II b
    Google Scholar
  • 31 Cypryk K, Kosinski M, Kaminska P et al. Diabetes control and pregnancy outcomes in women with type 1 diabetes treated during pregnancy with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion or multiple daily insulin injections. Pol Arch Med Wewn 2008; 118: 339-344 EK II b
    Google Scholar
  • 32 Gimenez M, Conget I, Nicolau J et al. Outcome of pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes intensively treated with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion or conventional therapy. A case-control study. Acta Diabetol 2007; 44: 34-37 EK III
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Institut für Qualität und Wirtschaftlichkeit im Gesundheitswesen (IQWiG). Kurzwirksame Insulinanaloga zur Behandlung des Diabetes mellitus Typ 1. Abschlussbericht. Auftrag A05-02. Version 1.0. 2007 http://http://www.iqwig.de/download/A05-02_Abschlussbericht_Kurzwirksame_Insulinanaloga_bei_Diabetes_mellitus_Typ_1.pdf EK I a
    Google Scholar
  • 34 Institut für Qualität und Wirtschaftlichkeit im Gesundheitswesen (IQWiG). Langwirksame Insulinanaloga zur Behandlung des Diabetes mellitus Typ 1. Abschlussbericht. Auftrag A05-01. Version 1.0 2010 http://http://www.iqwig.de/download/A05-01_Abschlussbericht_Langwirksame_Insulinanaloga_bei_Diabetes_mellitus_Typ_1.pdf EK I a
    Google Scholar
  • 35 Singh SR, Ahmad F, Lal A et al. Efficacy and safety of insulin analogues for the management of diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. CMAJ 2009; 180: 385-397 EK I a
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Monami M, Marchionni N, Mannucci E. Long-acting insulin analogues vs. NPH human insulin in type 1 diabetes. A meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab 2009; 11: 372-378 EK I a
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Mullins P, Sharplin P, Yki-Jarvinen H et al. Negative binomial meta-regression analysis of combined glycosylated hemoglobin and hypoglycemia outcomes across eleven Phase III and IV studies of insulin glargine compared with neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Ther 2007; 29: 1607-1619 EK I a
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Ashwell SG, Bradley C, Stephens JW et al. Treatment satisfaction and quality of life with insulin glargine plus insulin lispro compared with NPH insulin plus unmodified human insulin in individuals with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2008; 31: 1112-1117 EK I b
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Hermansen K, Fontaine P, Kukolja KK et al. Insulin analogues (insulin detemir and insulin aspart) versus traditional human insulins (NPH insulin and regular human insulin) in basal-bolus therapy for patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia 2004; 47: 622-629 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Brunner GA, Hirschberger S, Sendlhofer G et al. Post-prandial administration of the insulin analogue insulin aspart in patients with Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 2000; 17: 371-375 EK I b
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Rave K, Klein O, Frick AD et al. Advantage of premeal-injected insulin glulisine compared with regular human insulin in subjects with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 1812-1817 EK I b
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Scheen AJ, Letiexhe MR, Lefebvre PJ. Minimal influence of the time interval between injection of regular insulin and food intake on blood glucose control of type 1 diabetic patients on a basal-bolus insulin scheme. Diabetes Metab 1999; 25: 157-162 EK II b
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 DeWitt DE, Hirsch IB. Outpatient insulin therapy in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: scientific review. JAMA 2003; 289: 2254-2264 EK I b
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Hauner H, Stockamp B, Haastert B. Prevalence of lipohypertrophy in insulin-treated diabetic patients and predisposing factors. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 1996; 104: 106-110 EK III
    Article in Thieme ConnectGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Vardar B, Kizilci S. Incidence of lipohypertrophy in diabetic patients and a study of influencing factors. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007; 77: 231-236 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Johansson UB, Amsberg S, Hannerz L et al. Impaired absorption of insulin aspart from lipohypertrophic injection sites. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 2025-2027 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Richardson T, Weiss M, Thomas P et al. Day after the night before: influence of evening alcohol on risk of hypoglycemia in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 1801-1802 EK II a
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Toeller M. Evidenz-basierte Ernährungsempfehlungen zur Behandlung und Prävention des Diabetes mellitus. Diabet Stoffw 2005; 14: 75-94 EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 49 Herpertz S, Petrak F, Albus C et al. Evidenzbasierte Diabetes-Leitlinie DDG: Psychosoziale Interventionen bei Patienten mit Diabetes mellitus. Diabet Stoffw 2003; 12: 35-58 EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 50 Hermanns N, Kulzer B, Krichbaum M. Problemspezifische Patientenschulung. Übersicht zu einem wesentlichen Bestandteil der Diabetestherapie. Diabetologe 2008; 4: 361-367 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Hermanns N, Kulzer B. Diabetesschulung – ein kritischer Überblick. Diabetologe 2008; 4: 209-226 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Mühlhauser I, Bruckner I, Berger M et al. Evaluation of an intensified insulin treatment and teaching programme as routine management of type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes. The Bucharest-Dusseldorf Study. Diabetologia 1987; 30: 681-690 EK II a
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Sämann A, Mühlhauser I, Bender R et al. Glycaemic control and severe hypoglycaemia following training in flexible, intensive insulin therapy to enable dietary freedom in people with type 1 diabetes: a prospective implementation study. Diabetologia 2005; 48: 1965-1970 EK II b
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Bott S, Bott U, Berger M et al. Intensified insulin therapy and the risk of severe hypoglycaemia. Diabetologia 1997; 40: 926-932 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 55 DAFNE StudyGroup. Training in flexible, intensive insulin management to enable dietary freedom in people with type 1 diabetes: dose adjustment for normal eating (DAFNE) randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2002; 325: 746 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Cox D, Gonder-Frederick L, Polonsky W et al. A multicenter evaluation of blood glucose awareness training-II. Diabetes Care 1995; 18: 523-528 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Cox DJ, Gonder-Frederick L, Julian DM et al. Long-term follow-up evaluation of blood glucose awareness training. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 1-5 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Cox DJ, Gonder-Frederick L, Polonsky W et al. Blood glucose awareness training (BGAT-2): long-term benefits. Diabetes Care 2001; 24: 637-642 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Broers S, le Cessie S, Vliet KP et al. Blood Glucose Awareness Training in Dutch Type 1 diabetes patients. Short-term evaluation of individual and group training. Diabet Med 2002; 19: 157-161 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Kinsley BT, van Weinger K K, Bajaj M et al. Blood glucose awareness training and epinephrine responses to hypoglycemia during intensive treatment in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999; 22: 1022-1028 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Schachinger H, Hegar K, Hermanns N et al. Randomized controlled clinical trial of Blood Glucose Awareness Training (BGAT III) in Switzerland and Germany. J Behav Med 2005; 28: 587-594 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Kulzer B, Albus C, Herpertz S et al. Psychosoziales und Diabetes mellitus. Diabet Stoffw 2010; 5: S139-S145 EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 63 Scherbaum WA, Haak T. Deutsche Diabetes-Gesellschaft (DDG) (eds). Diabetes und Schwangerschaft. Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie der Deutschen Diabetes-Gesellschaft. 2008. EK IV http://http://www.deutsche-diabetes-gesellschaft.de/redaktion/mitteilungen/leitlinien/EBL_Schwangerschaft_2008.pdf
    Google Scholar
  • 64 Scherbaum WA, Haak T (eds) . Deutsche Diabetes-Gesellschaft (DDG). Körperliche Aktivität und Diabetes mellitus. Evidenzbasierte Leitlinie der Deutschen Diabetes-Gesellschaft. 2008. EK IV http://http://www.deutsche-diabetes-gesellschaft.de/redaktion/mitteilungen/leitlinien/EBL_Bewegung_2008.pdf
    Google Scholar
  • 65 American Diabetes Association (ADA). Standards of medical care in diabetes – 2010. Diabetes Care 2010; 33 S11-S61 EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 66 Goldberg PA, Siegel MD, Sherwin RS et al. Implementation of a safe and effective insulin infusion protocol in a medical intensive care unit. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 461-467 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Studer C, Sankou W, Penfornis A et al. Efficacy and safety of an insulin infusion protocol during and after cardiac surgery. Diabetes Metab 2010; 36: 71-78 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Golden SH, Peart-Vigilance C, Kao WH et al. Perioperative glycemic control and the risk of infectious complications in a cohort of adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999; 22: 1408-1414 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Husband DJ, Thai AC, Alberti KG. Management of diabetes during surgery with glucose-insulin-potassium infusion. Diabet Med 1986; 3: 69-74 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Christiansen CL, Schurizek BA, Malling B et al. Insulin treatment of the insulin-dependent diabetic patient undergoing minor surgery. Continuous intravenous infusion compared with subcutaneous administration. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 533-537 EK I b
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Raucoules-Aime M, Roussel LJ, Rossi D et al. Effect of severity of surgery on metabolic control and insulin requirements in insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Br J Anaesth 1995; 74: 231-233 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Furnary AP, Zerr KJ, Grunkemeier GL et al. Continuous intravenous insulin infusion reduces the incidence of deep sternal wound infection in diabetic patients after cardiac surgical procedures. Ann Thorac Surg 1999; 67: 352-360 EK II a
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Dewey CM, Riley WJ. Have diabetes, will travel. Postgrad Med 1999; 105 111-118 124 EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 74 Pfohl M, Schmülling RM. Diabetes, Sport und Reisen. In: Schatz H, Hrsg. Diabetologie kompakt. Blackwell; 2001. EK IV
    Article in Thieme ConnectGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Sane T, Koivisto VA, Nikkanen P et al. Adjustment of insulin doses of diabetic patients during long distance flights. BMJ 1990; 301: 421-422 EK III
    Google Scholar
  • 76 Driessen SO, Cobelens FG, Ligthelm RJ. Travel-related morbidity in travelers with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Travel Med 1999; 6: 12-15 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Schmülling RM, Pfohl M, Renn W et al. Flugreisen trotz Diabetes? Der Einfluß einer westlichen und östlichen Zeitverschiebung auf den Rhythmus zirkadianer Hormone und die Stoffwechseleinstellung von Typ I-Diabetikern. Z Allg Med 1995; 71: 212-225 EK II a
    Google Scholar
  • 78 Gandhi GY, Murad MH, Flynn DN et al. Immunotherapeutic agents in type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2008; 69: 244-252 EK I a
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Huurman VA, Decochez K, Mathieu C et al. Therapy with the hsp60 peptide DiaPep277 in C-peptide positive type 1 diabetes patients. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2007; 23: 269-275 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Pescovitz MD, Greenbaum CJ, Krause-Steinrauf H et al. Rituximab, B-lymphocyte depletion, and preservation of beta-cell function. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 2143-2152 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Raz I, Avron A, Tamir M et al. Treatment of new-onset type 1 diabetes with peptide DiaPep277 is safe and associated with preserved beta-cell function: extension of a randomized, double-blind, phase II trial. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2007; 23: 292-298 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Schloot NC, Meierhoff G, Lengyel C et al. Effect of heat shock protein peptide DiaPep277 on beta-cell function in paediatric and adult patients with recent-onset diabetes mellitus type 1: two prospective, randomized, double-blind phase II trials. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2007; 23: 276-285 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Walter M, Philotheou A, Bonnici F et al. No effect of the altered peptide ligand NBI-6024 on beta-cell residual function and insulin needs in new-onset type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 2036-2040 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Bundesärztekammer (BÄK), Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung (KBV), Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften (AWMF). Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Typ-2-Diabetes – Nierenerkrankungen bei Diabetes im Erwachsenenalter. Version Konsultation 1.0. 2010 http://http://www.diabetes.versorgungsleitlinie.de EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 85 Robertson RP. Seminars in medicine of the Beth Israel Hospital, Boston: Pancreatic and islet transplantation for diabetes – cures or curiosities?. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1861-1868 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Landgraf R. Impact of pancreas transplantation on diabetic secondary complications and quality of life. Diabetologia 1996; 39: 1415-1424 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Robertson RP, Holohan TV, Genuth S. Therapeutic controversy: Pancreas transplantation for type I diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83: 1868-1874 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Canadian Diabetes Association. Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Management of Diabetes in Canada. 2008 EK IV http://http://www.diabetes.ca/files/cpg2008/cpg-2008.pdf
    Google Scholar
  • 89 Nordrheinische Gemeinsame Einrichtung Disease-Management-Programme. Qualitätssicherungsbericht 2008. Disease-Management-Programme in Nordrhein. Brustkrebs, Diabetes mellitus Typ 1/Typ 2, Koronare Herzkrankheit, Asthma/COPD. Düsseldorf: Nordrheinische Gemeinsame Einrichtung DMP; 2009. EK III
    Google Scholar
  • 90 Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM et al. Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 1335-1343 EK IV
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Bull SV, Douglas IS, Foster M et al. Mandatory protocol for treating adult patients with diabetic ketoacidosis decreases intensive care unit and hospital lengths of stay: results of a nonrandomized trial. Crit Care Med 2007; 35: 41-46 EK II b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB et al. Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes: a consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 2739-2748 EK IV
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Haak T, Kellerer M (eds) Deutsche Diabetes-Gesellschaft (DDG): Diagnostik, Therapie und Verlaufskontrolle des Diabetes mellitus im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Mainz: Kirchheim 2009 EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 94 DCCT Research Group . Epidemiology of severe hypoglycemia in the diabetes control and complications trial. Am J Med 1991; 90: 450-459 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Beck RW, Buckingham B, Miller K et al. Factors predictive of use and of benefit from continuous glucose monitoring in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 1947-1953 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 96 O’Connell MA, Donath S, O'Neal DN et al. Glycaemic impact of patient-led use of sensor-guided pump therapy in type 1 diabetes: a randomised controlled trial. Diabetologia 2009; 52: 1250-1257 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Bode B, Beck RW, Xing D et al. Sustained benefit of continuous glucose monitoring on A1C, glucose profiles, and hypoglycemia in adults with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 2047-2049 EK III
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Bergenstal RM, Tamborlane WV, Ahmann A et al. Effectiveness of Sensor-Augmented Insulin-Pump Therapy in Type 1 Diabetes. N Engl J Med 2010; 363: 311-320 EK I b
    Google Scholar
  • 99 Tamborlane WV, Beck RW, Bode BW et al. Continuous glucose monitoring and intensive treatment of type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 1464-1476 EK I b
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Bundesärztekammer (BÄK), Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften (AWMF), Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung (KBV). Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Typ-2-Diabetes-Prävention und Therapie von Netzhautkomplikationen. 2006 http://http://www.versorgungsleitlinien.de/themen/diabetes2 / dm2_netzhaut/index_html EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 101 Bundesärztekammer (BÄK), Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung (KBV), Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften (AWMF). Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Neuropathie bei Diabetes im Erwachsenenalter. 2010 http://http://www.versorgungsleitlinien.de/themen/diabetes2 / dm2_neuro EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 102 Bundesärztekammer (BÄK), Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung (KBV), Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften (AWMF). Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Typ-2-Diabetes – Präventions- und Behandlungsstrategien für Fußkomplikationen. Version 2.8. 2006 http://http://www.diabetes.versorgungsleitlinie.de EK IV
    Google Scholar
  • 103 Bundesärztekammer (BÄK), Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften (AWMF), Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung (KBV). Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Nierenerkrankungen bei Diabetes im Erwachsenenalter. 2010 http://http://www.versorgungsleitlinien.de/themen/diabetes2 / dm2_nephrohttp://www.versorgungsleitlinien.de/themen/diabetes2 / dm2_nephro
    Google Scholar