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Yearb Med Inform 2003; 12(01): 159-169
DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1638164
DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1638164
Review Paper
Medical Applications of Virtual Environments
Further Information
Address of the author:
Prof. Giuseppe Riva, Ph.D.
Dipartimento di Psicologia
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore
Largo Gemelli 1
20123 Milan, Italy
Phone: +39-02-58216892
Fax: +39-02-70034918
Email: auxo.psylab@auxologico.it
Publication History
Publication Date:
05 March 2018 (online)
Abstract:
Technologies that were hardly used ten years ago, such as the Internet, e-mail, and video teleconferencing are becoming familiar methods for diagnosis, therapy, education and training. However, the possible impact of virtual reality (VR) on health care is even higher than the one offered by the new communication technologies. In fact, VR is a technology, a communication interface and an experience: a communication interface based on interactive 3D visualization, able to collect and integrate in single real-like experience different inputs and data sets.
The first health care applications of VR started in the early ‘90s with the need for medical staff to visualize complex medical data, particularly during surgery and for surgery planning. A couple of years later, the scope of VR applications in medicine has broadened to include neuropsychological assessment and rehabilitation.
This paper intends to investigate the role of VR in medicine, presenting some of the most interesting applications actually developed in the area. Moreover, it discusses the clinical principles, technological devices and safety issues associated with the use of virtual reality in medicine.
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References
- 1 Satava RM., Jones SB.. Medical applications of virtual reality. In Stanney KM.. editor Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation, and Applications. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2002: 368-91.
- 2 Wootton R.. Telemedicine: an introduction. In Wootton R.. editor European Telemedicine1998/99. London: Kensington Publications Ltd; 1999: 10-2.
- 3 Chinnock C.. Virtual reality in surgery and medicine. Hosp Technol Ser 1994; 13 (18) 1-48.
- 4 Riva G., Wiederhold B., Molinari E.. editors Virtual environments in clinical psychology and neuroscience: Methods and techniques in advanced patienttherapist interaction. Amsterdam: IOS Press; Online http://www.psicologia.net/ pages/book2.htm 1998
- 5 Beolchi L., Riva G.. Virtual reality for health care. In Akay M., Marsh A.. editors Information Technologies in Medicine. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons; 2001: 39-83.
- 6 Rubino F., Soler L., Marescaux J., Maisonneuve H.. Advances in virtual reality are wide ranging. BMJ 2002; 324 7337 612.
- 7 McCloy R., Stone R.. Science, medicine, and the future. Virtual reality in surgery. BMJ 2001; 323 7318 912-5.
- 8 Székely G., Satava RM.. Virtual reality in medicine. BMJ 1999; 319 7220 1305.
- 9 Schultheis MT., Rizzo AA.. The Application of Virtual Reality Technology in Rehabilitation. Rehabil Psychol 2001; 46 (03) 296-311.
- 10 Riva G., Rizzo A., Alpini D., Attree EA., Barbieri E., Bertella L.. et al. Virtual environments in the diagnosis, prevention, and intervention of age-related diseases: A review of VR scenarios proposed in the EC VETERAN project. Cyberpsychol Behav 1999; 2 (06) 577-91.
- 11 Rizzo AA., Wiederhold B., Riva G., Van Der Zaag C.. A bibliography of articles relevant to the application of virtual reality in the mental health field. Cyberpsychol Behav 1998; 1 (04) 411-25.
- 12 Rizzo AA., Buckwalter JG.. Virtual reality and cognitive assessment and rehabilitation: the state of the art. In Riva G.. editor Virtual reality in neuro-psychophysiology. Amsterdam: IOS Press; 1997: 123-46.
- 13 Riva G., Alcañiz M., Anolli L., Bacchetta M.. Baños RM., Beltrame F.. et al. The VEPSY Updated project: Virtual reality in clinical psychology. Cyberpsychol Behav 2001; 4 (04) 449-55.
- 14 Heim M.. Virtual Realism. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998
- 15 Bricken W.. Virtual reality: Directions of growth. Seattle, WA: University of Washington; 1990
- 16 Riva G., Mantovani G.. The need for a socio-cultural perspective in the implementation of virtual environments. Virtual Reality 2000; 05: 32-8.
- 17 Riva G., Davide F.. editors Communications through Virtual Technologies: Identity, Community and Technology in the Communication Age. Amsterdam: Ios Press. Online http://www.emergingcommunication.com/ volume1.html 2001
- 18 Biocca F., Levy MR.. editors Communication in the age of virtual reality. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1995
- 19 Steuer JS.. Defining virtual reality: Dimensions determining telepresence. Journal of Communication 1992; 42 (04) 73-93.
- 20 Sastry L., Boyd DRS.. Virtual environments for engineering applications. Virtual Reality: Research, development and applications 1998; 3 (04) 235-44.
- 21 Satava RM., Ellis SR.. Human interface technology. An essential tool for the modern surgeon. Surg Endosc 1994; 8 (07) 817-20.
- 22 ISO. ISO/IEC 9126- Software engineering — Product quality — Part 1: Quality model. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization; 2001
- 23 John NW., Thacker N., Pokric M., Jackson A., Zanetti G., Gobbetti E.. et al. An integrated simulator for surgery of the petrous bone. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 218-24.
- 24 Ackerman MJ.. The Visible Human Project. J Biocommun 1991; 18 (02) 14.
- 25 Spitzer V., Ackerman MJ., Scherzinger AL., Whitlock D.. The visible human male: a technical report. J Am Med Inform Assoc 1996; 3 (02) 118-30.
- 26 Ackerman MJ., Yoo T., Jenkins D.. From data to knowledge—the Visible Human Project continues. Medinfo 2001; 10 0Pt 2 887-90.
- 27 Westwood JD., Hoffman HM., Mogel GT., Stredney D.. editors Medicine meets virtual reality 2002. Amsterdam: IOS Press; 2002
- 28 Durlach NI., Mavor ASE.. Virtual reality: scientific and technological challenges. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press; Online http://www.nap.edu/books/ 0309051355/html/index.html 1995
- 29 Satava RM.. Surgery 2001: A Technologic Framework for the Future. Surg Endosc 1993; 7: 111-3.
- 30 Satava RM.. Virtual reality surgical simulator. The first steps. Surg Endosc 1993; 7 (03) 203-5.
- 31 Satava RM.. Surgical education and surgical simulation. World J Surg 2001; 25 (11) 1484-9.
- 32 Ali MR., Mowery Y., Kaplan B., DeMaria EJ.. Training the novice in laparoscopy. Surg Endosc. 2002
- 33 Dammann F., Bode A., Schwaderer E., Schaich M., Heuschmid M., Maassen MM.. Computer-aided surgical planning for implantation of hearing aids based on CT data in a VR environment. Radiographics 2001; 21 (01) 183-91.
- 34 Xia J., Ip HH., Samman N., Wong HT., Gateno J., Wang D.. et al. Three-dimensional virtual-reality surgical planning and softtissue prediction for orthognathic surgery. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed 2001; 5 (02) 97-107.
- 35 Herfarth C., Lamade W., Fischer L., Chiu P., Cardenas C., Thorn M.. et al. The effect of virtual reality and training on liver operation planning. Swiss Surg 2002; 8 (02) 67-73.
- 36 Ross MD., Twombly IA., Bruyns C., Cheng R., Senger S.. Telecommunications for health care over distance: the virtual collaborative clinic. Stud Health Technol Inform 2000; 70: 286-91.
- 37 Halligan S., Fenlon HM.. Virtual colonoscopy. BMJ 1999; 319 7219 1249-52.
- 38 Vincelli F.. From imagination to virtual reality: the future of clinical psychology. Cyberpsychol Behav 1999; 2 (03) 241-8.
- 39 Vincelli F., Molinari E., Riva G.. Virtual reality as clinical tool: immersion and three-dimensionality in the relationship between patient and therapist. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 551-3.
- 40 Norcross JC., Hedges M., Prochaska JO.. The face of 2010: A Delphi poll on the future of psychotherapy. Prof Psychol Res Pr 2002; 33 (03) 316-22.
- 41 Menon ST.. Psychological Empowerment: Definition, Measurement, and Validation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 1999; 31 (03) 161-4.
- 42 Botella C., Perpiña C., Baños RM.. Garcia-Palacios A.. Virtual reality: a new clinical setting lab. Stud Health Technol Inform 1998; 58: 73-81.
- 43 Riva G.. Virtual environments in neuroscience. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed 1998; 2 (04) 275-81.
- 44 Rose FD., Brooks BM., Attree EA., Parslow DM., Leadbetter AG., McNeil JE.. et al. A preliminary investigation into the use of virtual environments in memory retraining after vascular brain injury: indications for future strategy?. Disabil Rehabil 1999; 21 (012) 548-54.
- 45 Gourlay D., Lun KC., Lee YN., Tay J.. Virtual reality for relearning daily living skills. Int J Med Inf 2000; 60 (03) 255-61.
- 46 Riva G.. Virtual reality in rehabilitation of spinal cord injuries. Rehabil Psychol 2000; 45 (01) 81-8.
- 47 Sisto SA., Forrest GF., Glendinning D.. Virtual reality applications for motor rehabilitation after stroke. Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation 2002; 8 (04) 11-23.
- 48 Zhang L., Abreu BC., Masel B., Scheibel RS., Christiansen CH., Huddleston N.. et al. Virtual reality in the assessment of selected cognitive function after brain injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2001; 80 (08) 597-604. quiz 605.
- 49 Wald J., Liu L.. Psychometric properties of the drivr: a virtual reality driving assessment. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 564-6.
- 50 Pugnetti L., Mendozzi L., Motta A., Cattaneo A., Barbieri E., Brancotti A.. Evaluation and retraining of adults’ cognitive impairment: which role for virtual reality technology?. Comput Biol Med 1995; 25 (02) 213-27.
- 51 Broeren J., Bjorkdahl A., Pascher R., Rydmark M.. Virtual reality and haptics as an assessment device in the postacute phase after stroke. Cyberpsychol Behav 2002; 5 (03) 207-11.
- 52 Piron L., Cenni F., Tonin P., Dam M.. Virtual Reality as an assessment tool for arm motor deficits after brain lesions. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 386-92.
- 53 Gross D.. Technology Management and User Acceptance of VE Technology. In Stanney KM.. editor. Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation, and Applications. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2002
- 54 Moline J.. Virtual reality in health care: a survey. In Riva G.. editor Virtual reality in neuro-psycho-physiology. Amsterdam: IOS Press; 1997: 3-34.
- 55 Nichols S., Patel H.. Health and safety implications of virtual reality: a review of empirical evidence. Appl Ergon 2002; 33 (03) 251-71.
- 56 Lewis CH., Griffin MJ.. Human factors consideration in clinical applications of virtual reality. In Riva G.. editor Virtual reality in neuro-psycho-physiology. Amsterdam: IOS Press; 1997: 35-56.
- 57 A report of the U.S. National Advisory Mental Health Council. Washington, D.C: U.S. Goverment Printing Office; 1995
- 58 Riva G.. Virtual reality for health care: the status of research. Cyberpsychol Behav 2002; 5 (03) 219-25.
- 59 Riva G., Bacchetta M., Cesa G., Conti S., Molinari E.. Virtual reality and telemedicine based Experiential Cognitive Therapy: Rationale and Clinical Protocol. In Riva G., Galimberti C.. editors Towards Cyber Psychology: Mind, Cognition and Society in the Internet Age. >Amsterdam: IOS Press; 2001: 273-308.
- 60 Klein RA.. Treating fear of flying with virtual reality exposure therapy. In VandeCreek L., Jackson TL.. editors Innovations in clinical practice: A source book, Vol. 17. Sarasota, FL, US: 1999: 449-65.
- 61 Botella C., Banos RM., Villa H., Perpina C., Garcia-Palacios A.. Telepsychology: Public speaking fear treatment on the internet. Cyberpsychol Behav 2000; 3 (06) 959-68.
- 62 Vincelli F., Choi YH., Molinari E., Wiederhold BK., Riva G.. A VR-based multicomponent treatment for panic disorders with agoraphobia. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 544-50.
- 63 Riva G., Bolzoni M., Carella F., Galimberti C., Griffin MJ., Lewis CH.. et al. Virtual reality environments for psycho-neurophysiological assessment and rehabilitation. In Morgan KS., Weghorst SJ., Hoffman HM., Stredney D.. editors Medicine Meets Virtual Reality: Global Healthcare Grid. >Amsterdam: IOS Press; 1997: 34-45.
- 64 Hughes T., Clark DD., Banks PM., Lineberger WC.. editors Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; Online http:// stills.nap.edu/html/far/contents.html 1999
- 65 Riva G.. editor Virtual reality in neuropsycho- physiology: Cognitive, clinical and methodological issues in assessment and rehabilitation. Amsterdam: IOS Press; Online http://www.psicologia.net/pages/ book1.htm 1997
- 66 Riva G., Bacchetta M., Baruffi M., Borgomainerio E., Defrance C., Gatti F.. et al. VREPAR Projects: The use of virtual environments in psycho-neurophysiological assessment and rehabilitation. Cyberpsychol Behav 1999; 2 (01) 69-76.
Address of the author:
Prof. Giuseppe Riva, Ph.D.
Dipartimento di Psicologia
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore
Largo Gemelli 1
20123 Milan, Italy
Phone: +39-02-58216892
Fax: +39-02-70034918
Email: auxo.psylab@auxologico.it
-
References
- 1 Satava RM., Jones SB.. Medical applications of virtual reality. In Stanney KM.. editor Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation, and Applications. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2002: 368-91.
- 2 Wootton R.. Telemedicine: an introduction. In Wootton R.. editor European Telemedicine1998/99. London: Kensington Publications Ltd; 1999: 10-2.
- 3 Chinnock C.. Virtual reality in surgery and medicine. Hosp Technol Ser 1994; 13 (18) 1-48.
- 4 Riva G., Wiederhold B., Molinari E.. editors Virtual environments in clinical psychology and neuroscience: Methods and techniques in advanced patienttherapist interaction. Amsterdam: IOS Press; Online http://www.psicologia.net/ pages/book2.htm 1998
- 5 Beolchi L., Riva G.. Virtual reality for health care. In Akay M., Marsh A.. editors Information Technologies in Medicine. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons; 2001: 39-83.
- 6 Rubino F., Soler L., Marescaux J., Maisonneuve H.. Advances in virtual reality are wide ranging. BMJ 2002; 324 7337 612.
- 7 McCloy R., Stone R.. Science, medicine, and the future. Virtual reality in surgery. BMJ 2001; 323 7318 912-5.
- 8 Székely G., Satava RM.. Virtual reality in medicine. BMJ 1999; 319 7220 1305.
- 9 Schultheis MT., Rizzo AA.. The Application of Virtual Reality Technology in Rehabilitation. Rehabil Psychol 2001; 46 (03) 296-311.
- 10 Riva G., Rizzo A., Alpini D., Attree EA., Barbieri E., Bertella L.. et al. Virtual environments in the diagnosis, prevention, and intervention of age-related diseases: A review of VR scenarios proposed in the EC VETERAN project. Cyberpsychol Behav 1999; 2 (06) 577-91.
- 11 Rizzo AA., Wiederhold B., Riva G., Van Der Zaag C.. A bibliography of articles relevant to the application of virtual reality in the mental health field. Cyberpsychol Behav 1998; 1 (04) 411-25.
- 12 Rizzo AA., Buckwalter JG.. Virtual reality and cognitive assessment and rehabilitation: the state of the art. In Riva G.. editor Virtual reality in neuro-psychophysiology. Amsterdam: IOS Press; 1997: 123-46.
- 13 Riva G., Alcañiz M., Anolli L., Bacchetta M.. Baños RM., Beltrame F.. et al. The VEPSY Updated project: Virtual reality in clinical psychology. Cyberpsychol Behav 2001; 4 (04) 449-55.
- 14 Heim M.. Virtual Realism. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998
- 15 Bricken W.. Virtual reality: Directions of growth. Seattle, WA: University of Washington; 1990
- 16 Riva G., Mantovani G.. The need for a socio-cultural perspective in the implementation of virtual environments. Virtual Reality 2000; 05: 32-8.
- 17 Riva G., Davide F.. editors Communications through Virtual Technologies: Identity, Community and Technology in the Communication Age. Amsterdam: Ios Press. Online http://www.emergingcommunication.com/ volume1.html 2001
- 18 Biocca F., Levy MR.. editors Communication in the age of virtual reality. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1995
- 19 Steuer JS.. Defining virtual reality: Dimensions determining telepresence. Journal of Communication 1992; 42 (04) 73-93.
- 20 Sastry L., Boyd DRS.. Virtual environments for engineering applications. Virtual Reality: Research, development and applications 1998; 3 (04) 235-44.
- 21 Satava RM., Ellis SR.. Human interface technology. An essential tool for the modern surgeon. Surg Endosc 1994; 8 (07) 817-20.
- 22 ISO. ISO/IEC 9126- Software engineering — Product quality — Part 1: Quality model. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization; 2001
- 23 John NW., Thacker N., Pokric M., Jackson A., Zanetti G., Gobbetti E.. et al. An integrated simulator for surgery of the petrous bone. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 218-24.
- 24 Ackerman MJ.. The Visible Human Project. J Biocommun 1991; 18 (02) 14.
- 25 Spitzer V., Ackerman MJ., Scherzinger AL., Whitlock D.. The visible human male: a technical report. J Am Med Inform Assoc 1996; 3 (02) 118-30.
- 26 Ackerman MJ., Yoo T., Jenkins D.. From data to knowledge—the Visible Human Project continues. Medinfo 2001; 10 0Pt 2 887-90.
- 27 Westwood JD., Hoffman HM., Mogel GT., Stredney D.. editors Medicine meets virtual reality 2002. Amsterdam: IOS Press; 2002
- 28 Durlach NI., Mavor ASE.. Virtual reality: scientific and technological challenges. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press; Online http://www.nap.edu/books/ 0309051355/html/index.html 1995
- 29 Satava RM.. Surgery 2001: A Technologic Framework for the Future. Surg Endosc 1993; 7: 111-3.
- 30 Satava RM.. Virtual reality surgical simulator. The first steps. Surg Endosc 1993; 7 (03) 203-5.
- 31 Satava RM.. Surgical education and surgical simulation. World J Surg 2001; 25 (11) 1484-9.
- 32 Ali MR., Mowery Y., Kaplan B., DeMaria EJ.. Training the novice in laparoscopy. Surg Endosc. 2002
- 33 Dammann F., Bode A., Schwaderer E., Schaich M., Heuschmid M., Maassen MM.. Computer-aided surgical planning for implantation of hearing aids based on CT data in a VR environment. Radiographics 2001; 21 (01) 183-91.
- 34 Xia J., Ip HH., Samman N., Wong HT., Gateno J., Wang D.. et al. Three-dimensional virtual-reality surgical planning and softtissue prediction for orthognathic surgery. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed 2001; 5 (02) 97-107.
- 35 Herfarth C., Lamade W., Fischer L., Chiu P., Cardenas C., Thorn M.. et al. The effect of virtual reality and training on liver operation planning. Swiss Surg 2002; 8 (02) 67-73.
- 36 Ross MD., Twombly IA., Bruyns C., Cheng R., Senger S.. Telecommunications for health care over distance: the virtual collaborative clinic. Stud Health Technol Inform 2000; 70: 286-91.
- 37 Halligan S., Fenlon HM.. Virtual colonoscopy. BMJ 1999; 319 7219 1249-52.
- 38 Vincelli F.. From imagination to virtual reality: the future of clinical psychology. Cyberpsychol Behav 1999; 2 (03) 241-8.
- 39 Vincelli F., Molinari E., Riva G.. Virtual reality as clinical tool: immersion and three-dimensionality in the relationship between patient and therapist. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 551-3.
- 40 Norcross JC., Hedges M., Prochaska JO.. The face of 2010: A Delphi poll on the future of psychotherapy. Prof Psychol Res Pr 2002; 33 (03) 316-22.
- 41 Menon ST.. Psychological Empowerment: Definition, Measurement, and Validation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 1999; 31 (03) 161-4.
- 42 Botella C., Perpiña C., Baños RM.. Garcia-Palacios A.. Virtual reality: a new clinical setting lab. Stud Health Technol Inform 1998; 58: 73-81.
- 43 Riva G.. Virtual environments in neuroscience. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed 1998; 2 (04) 275-81.
- 44 Rose FD., Brooks BM., Attree EA., Parslow DM., Leadbetter AG., McNeil JE.. et al. A preliminary investigation into the use of virtual environments in memory retraining after vascular brain injury: indications for future strategy?. Disabil Rehabil 1999; 21 (012) 548-54.
- 45 Gourlay D., Lun KC., Lee YN., Tay J.. Virtual reality for relearning daily living skills. Int J Med Inf 2000; 60 (03) 255-61.
- 46 Riva G.. Virtual reality in rehabilitation of spinal cord injuries. Rehabil Psychol 2000; 45 (01) 81-8.
- 47 Sisto SA., Forrest GF., Glendinning D.. Virtual reality applications for motor rehabilitation after stroke. Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation 2002; 8 (04) 11-23.
- 48 Zhang L., Abreu BC., Masel B., Scheibel RS., Christiansen CH., Huddleston N.. et al. Virtual reality in the assessment of selected cognitive function after brain injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2001; 80 (08) 597-604. quiz 605.
- 49 Wald J., Liu L.. Psychometric properties of the drivr: a virtual reality driving assessment. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 564-6.
- 50 Pugnetti L., Mendozzi L., Motta A., Cattaneo A., Barbieri E., Brancotti A.. Evaluation and retraining of adults’ cognitive impairment: which role for virtual reality technology?. Comput Biol Med 1995; 25 (02) 213-27.
- 51 Broeren J., Bjorkdahl A., Pascher R., Rydmark M.. Virtual reality and haptics as an assessment device in the postacute phase after stroke. Cyberpsychol Behav 2002; 5 (03) 207-11.
- 52 Piron L., Cenni F., Tonin P., Dam M.. Virtual Reality as an assessment tool for arm motor deficits after brain lesions. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 386-92.
- 53 Gross D.. Technology Management and User Acceptance of VE Technology. In Stanney KM.. editor. Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation, and Applications. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2002
- 54 Moline J.. Virtual reality in health care: a survey. In Riva G.. editor Virtual reality in neuro-psycho-physiology. Amsterdam: IOS Press; 1997: 3-34.
- 55 Nichols S., Patel H.. Health and safety implications of virtual reality: a review of empirical evidence. Appl Ergon 2002; 33 (03) 251-71.
- 56 Lewis CH., Griffin MJ.. Human factors consideration in clinical applications of virtual reality. In Riva G.. editor Virtual reality in neuro-psycho-physiology. Amsterdam: IOS Press; 1997: 35-56.
- 57 A report of the U.S. National Advisory Mental Health Council. Washington, D.C: U.S. Goverment Printing Office; 1995
- 58 Riva G.. Virtual reality for health care: the status of research. Cyberpsychol Behav 2002; 5 (03) 219-25.
- 59 Riva G., Bacchetta M., Cesa G., Conti S., Molinari E.. Virtual reality and telemedicine based Experiential Cognitive Therapy: Rationale and Clinical Protocol. In Riva G., Galimberti C.. editors Towards Cyber Psychology: Mind, Cognition and Society in the Internet Age. >Amsterdam: IOS Press; 2001: 273-308.
- 60 Klein RA.. Treating fear of flying with virtual reality exposure therapy. In VandeCreek L., Jackson TL.. editors Innovations in clinical practice: A source book, Vol. 17. Sarasota, FL, US: 1999: 449-65.
- 61 Botella C., Banos RM., Villa H., Perpina C., Garcia-Palacios A.. Telepsychology: Public speaking fear treatment on the internet. Cyberpsychol Behav 2000; 3 (06) 959-68.
- 62 Vincelli F., Choi YH., Molinari E., Wiederhold BK., Riva G.. A VR-based multicomponent treatment for panic disorders with agoraphobia. Stud Health Technol Inform 2001; 81: 544-50.
- 63 Riva G., Bolzoni M., Carella F., Galimberti C., Griffin MJ., Lewis CH.. et al. Virtual reality environments for psycho-neurophysiological assessment and rehabilitation. In Morgan KS., Weghorst SJ., Hoffman HM., Stredney D.. editors Medicine Meets Virtual Reality: Global Healthcare Grid. >Amsterdam: IOS Press; 1997: 34-45.
- 64 Hughes T., Clark DD., Banks PM., Lineberger WC.. editors Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; Online http:// stills.nap.edu/html/far/contents.html 1999
- 65 Riva G.. editor Virtual reality in neuropsycho- physiology: Cognitive, clinical and methodological issues in assessment and rehabilitation. Amsterdam: IOS Press; Online http://www.psicologia.net/pages/ book1.htm 1997
- 66 Riva G., Bacchetta M., Baruffi M., Borgomainerio E., Defrance C., Gatti F.. et al. VREPAR Projects: The use of virtual environments in psycho-neurophysiological assessment and rehabilitation. Cyberpsychol Behav 1999; 2 (01) 69-76.