Thromb Haemost 2019; 119(01): 009-013
DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1676612
Invited Editorial Focus
Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

The Conundrum Surrounding Racial Differences on Ischaemic and Bleeding Risk with Dual Anti-Platelet Therapy

Antonio Greco
1   Division of Cardiology, CAST, P.O. “Rodolico,” Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria “Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele,” University of Catania, Catania, Italy
,
Davide Capodanno
1   Division of Cardiology, CAST, P.O. “Rodolico,” Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria “Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele,” University of Catania, Catania, Italy
,
Dominick J. Angiolillo
2   Division of Cardiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Address for correspondence

Dominick J. Angiolillo, MD, PhD
University of Florida College of Medicine–Jacksonville
655 West 8th Street, Jacksonville, FL 32209
United States   

Publication History

19 November 2018

19 November 2018

Publication Date:
31 December 2018 (online)

 

Dual anti-platelet therapy (DAPT), consisting of aspirin in combination with a platelet P2Y12 inhibitor, is the mainstay of adjunctive pharmacotherapy after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in both the elective and emergent setting.[1] [2] The main drawback of DAPT is the increased risk of haemorrhagic complications, which sets the rationale for recent and on-going studies on how to appropriately risk stratify such patients[3] [4] [5] and investigations of strategies designed to minimize out-of-hospital bleeding, such as shortening DAPT duration, de-escalating DAPT or withdrawing aspirin.[6] [7] [8]

In recent years, the optimal duration of DAPT has been one of the most investigated topics in the field of PCI pharmacotherapy, with some debate over the long-term benefit beyond 12 months.[9] [10] Several trials performed across the globe informed current guidelines issued by cardiovascular societies in Europe and the United States, which now generally recommend DAPT for 6 months after an elective PCI and 12 months after PCI in the context of an acute coronary syndrome.[1] As opposed to the classic ‘one-size-fits-all’ paradigm, a currently endorsed approach is to evaluate on a case-by-case basis whether those default DAPT durations should be shortened or prolonged based on the demographic and clinical circumstances of ischaemic and bleeding risk.[11]

Among individual factors that enter decision-making for DAPT duration in PCI practice, race has been advocated as a treatment modifier.[12] In particular, East Asian patients are known to experience more bleeding and less ischaemic complications after PCI as compared with Western patients.[12] [13] However, the current European and United States focused updates on DAPT do not provide specific recommendations based on race,[1] which may explain their limited acceptance and applicability in certain areas of the world. Interestingly, trials of DAPT duration conducted in East Asia mostly explored the efficacy and safety of shorter versus longer DAPT regimens, in line with local bleeding concern ([Table 1]).[14] [15] [16] [17] Conversely, in Western countries where the ischaemic risk is higher, several trials of longer DAPT have been conducted in parallel with trials of shorter DAPT.[10] [18] [19] [20] [21] In global trials that included both Western and non-Western patients, data on sub-group analyses based on ethnicity are scant. On this background, it remains uncertain whether racial factors affect clinical outcomes of DAPT duration.

Table 1

Randomized controlled trials comparing different DAPT durations

Trial

Year

Nation

DAPT duration

Patients

Primary endpoint

Bleeding definition

Findings

EXCELLENT

2012

Republic of Korea

6 vs. 12 months

1,443 (722 vs. 721)

Cardiac death, MI, TVR

TIMI

6 months DAPT non-inferior

PRODIGY

2012

Italy

6 vs. 24 months

1,501 (751 vs. 750)

All-cause death, MMI, stroke

TIMI, BleedScore, BARC

24 months DAPT non-superior

RESET

2012

Republic of Korea

3 vs. 12 months

2,117 (1,059 vs. 1,058)

Cardiac death, MI, stent thrombosis, TVR, major bleeding

TIMI

3 months DAPT non-inferior

OPTIMIZE

2013

Brazil

3 vs. 12 months

3,119 (1,563 vs. 1,556)

All-cause death, MI, stroke, major bleeding

REPLACE-2, GUSTO

3 months DAPT non-inferior

DES-LATE

2014

Republic of Korea

12 vs. 36 months

5,045 (2,514 vs. 2,531)

Cardiac death, MI, stroke

TIMI

Prolonged DAPT non-superior

ARCTIC-Interruption

2014

France

12 vs. 24 months

1,259 (624 vs. 635)

All-cause death, MI, stent thrombosis, stroke, urgent revascularization

STEEPLE

No benefits but instead harms from prolonged DAPT

SECURITY

2014

Italy

6 vs. 12 months

2,399 (682 vs. 1717)

Cardiac death, MI, stent thrombosis, stroke, major bleeding

BARC

6 months DAPT non-inferior

DAPT

2014

Australia, Europe, United States

12 vs. 30 months

9,961 (4,941 vs, 5,020)

Stent thrombosis, MACCEs (death, MI, stroke) and moderate to severe bleedings

GUSTO, BARC

Superiority of 30 months DAPT

ITALIC

2015

France

6 vs. 24 months

1,894 (953 vs, 941)

Death, MI, urgent TVR, stroke, major bleeding

TIMI

6 months DAPT non-inferior

ISAR-SAFE

2015

Asia, Europe, United States

6 vs. 12 months

4,000 (1,997 vs, 2,003)

Death, MI, stent thrombosis, stroke, major bleeding

TIMI

6 months DAPT non-inferior

OPTIDUAL

2016

France

12 vs. 48 months

1,385 (690 vs, 695)

All-cause death, MI, stroke, major bleeding

ISTH

Extended DAPT non-superior

I-LOVE-IT-2

2016

China

6 vs. 12 months

1,829 (909 vs, 920)

Cardiac death, TVMI, clinically indicated TLR

BARC

6 months DAPT non-inferior

IVUS-XPL

2016

Republic of Korea

6 vs. 12 months

1,400 (699 vs, 701)

Cardiac death, MI, stroke, major bleeding

TIMI

6 months DAPT non-inferior

NIPPON

2017

Japan

6 vs. 12 months

1,443 (722 vs, 721)

All-cause death, MI, stroke, major bleeding

REPLACE-2, BARC

6 months DAPT non-inferior

COBRA-REDUCE

2020 (estimated)

Europe, United States

14 days vs. 3–6 months

996

All-cause death, MI, stent thrombosis, stroke and bleeding

BARC

On-going

MASTER DAPT

2019 (estimated)

Worldwide

1 vs. 6–12 months

4,300 (2,150 vs, 2,150)

All-cause death, MI, stroke, major bleeding

BARC

On-going

XIENCE Short

2020 (estimated)

United States

3 months vs. standard for site

2,000

All-cause death and MI

BARC

On-going

Abbreviations: BARC, Bleeding Academic Research Consortium; DAPT, dual anti-platelet therapy; GUSTO, Global Utilization of Streptokinase and Tissue Plasminogen Activator for Occluded Coronary Arteries; ISTH, International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis; MACCEs, major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events; MI, myocardial infarction; REPLACE-2, Randomized Evaluation of PCI Linking Angiomax to Reduced Clinical Events; STEEPLE, Safety and Efficacy of Enoxaparin in Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Patients; TIMI, thrombolysis in myocardial infarction; TLR, target lesion revascularization; TVMI, target vessel myocardial infarction; TVR, target vessel revascularization.


In this issue of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, the patient-level landmark meta-analysis by Kang et al is a meaningful asset to understand whether racial differences truly exist in the net benefit of DAPT.[22] Seven trials were included encompassing 16,518 patients (8,605 East Asians, 7,913 non-East Asians). The period of interest was the landmark between discontinuation of DAPT in the shorter DAPT arm and a mean follow-up of 500 days, reflecting a comparison of DAPT with single anti-platelet therapy. Notably, the two examined cohorts (i.e. East Asians and non-East Asians) greatly differed in their baseline risk profiles in a way that may impact ischaemic and bleeding outcomes, but statistical adjustment was performed to minimize confounding. In line with prior literature, East Asians were confirmed to experience a lower adjusted risk of ischaemic events (hazard ratio [HR]: 0.487, p < 0.001) and a higher adjusted risk of major bleedings (HR: 2.262, p = 0.01) as compared with non-East Asian patients. DAPT significantly increased the adjusted risk of major bleeding in East Asian patients (HR: 2.843, p = 0.002) but not in non-East Asian patients (HR: 1.375, p = 0.523), thus resulting in a smaller number needed to harm (186 vs. 424). Interestingly, the authors introduced a novel parameter called ‘probability risk ratio’, representing the risk ratio of major bleeding to ischaemia. East Asians displayed a higher median probability risk ratio (0.66 vs. 0.15) and a significantly larger proportion of patients with higher probability of bleeding than ischaemia (32.3% vs. 0.4%, p < 0.001) as compared with non-East Asians.

The authors should be commended for their efforts in this delicate field which has several worthy aspects. In fact, this meta-analysis encompassed a large number of subjects, including a sizeable proportion of East Asian individuals. One of the key benefits of conducting a patient-level rather than a study-level meta-analysis is the possibility to control for potential confounders with multivariable statistical adjustment, which is indeed advantageous. Moreover, the study was intended as a landmark meta-analysis with censoring of events occurring before DAPT discontinuation in each trial, therefore shifting the focus from the optimal duration of DAPT to the ischaemia/bleeding risk trade-off of DAPT continuation.

However, there are some points of concerns that need to be mentioned. Some relevant trials were excluded for several reasons, including failure to obtain individual patient data from the original investigators. Ethnicity was defined only based on the countries participating in the enrolment process and the non-East Asian group was heterogeneous. The included trials differed with respect to randomization time points, adjudication processes and especially bleeding definitions. Clopidogrel was the mostly used drug in combination with aspirin, which makes the results not applicable to DAPT regimens using other P2Y12 inhibitors. The variability of stents among different countries and populations (e.g. first-generation drug-eluting stents were mostly used in East Asian patients compared with their counterpart) acts as a major confounder, which is difficult to control adequately even with multivariable adjustment when ischaemic outcomes are assessed. Another theoretical concern is the lack of as-treated analysis owing to the missing data about protocol violations, namely, crossover rates or early DAPT discontinuation. Finally, the ‘probability risk ratio’ introduces a novel statistical parameter which is intuitive but not immune from criticism. In fact, the same ratio can be theoretically obtained in high ischaemic and high bleeding risk patients (high/high, e.g. 2/2 = 1) and in the low ischaemic and low bleeding risk patients (low/low, e.g. 0.5/0.5 = 1), in which the implication of DAPT may not be the same.

The underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms of racial disparities in the field of anti-thrombotic pharmacotherapy response have been widely examined over the years.[13] [23] [24] [25] One reason for such conundrum in East Asians is the higher prevalence of CYP2C19 single nucleotide polymorphisms (mostly CYP2C19*2) diminishing the activity of clopidogrel and responsible for higher rates of on-treatment high platelet reactivity. Such ‘East Asian paradox’ (e.g. high platelet reactivity in the context of lower ischaemic events) suggests that Westerners' cut-off values for high platelet reactivity are hardly applicable to East Asian patients, which probably entail a different ‘sweet spot’ in terms of platelet inhibition.[26] [27] [28] East Asians also experience a greater exposure to prasugrel and ticagrelor compared with Caucasians, even after adjustment for body weight, thus suggesting that the optimal dose of the newer generation P2Y12 inhibitors should be reduced.[29] [30] [31] [32] Thrombogenicity is also quite variable among races, with substantial differences in coagulation, fibrinolysis, levels of haemostatic factors, plasma endothelial activation markers, genetic polymorphisms and inflammation processes.[33] [34] [35] Obesity is also associated with a pro-thrombotic status and appears to be less prevalent among East Asians.[36] In addition, minor reasons accounting for the observed racial differences could be the different lifestyle and the higher prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection among East Asians, which could be more susceptible to gastrointestinal ulceration and bleedings, especially during anti-thrombotic treatments.[37] Finally, even the identification of high bleeding/ischaemic risk patients could be troublesome among East Asians. In fact, commonly used risk scores have been developed and validated in Westerners and may not be suitable for Easterners.[11] The need for a race-specific scoring system is powerfully emerging to help clinicians making the right choices for each patient.

Moving forward, how can we integrate the information from the important meta-analysis of Kang et al in our daily decision-making for patients of different ethnicity? First, after a global patient evaluation, thrombotic and bleeding risks should be assessed for every individual patient and ‘one-size-fits-all’ strategies should be avoided. Second, even if the results are consistent in showing that East Asian patients are more vulnerable to bleeding than ischaemia, a high bleeding risk should not be translated automatically into a shorter DAPT duration because a higher bleeding risk does not exclude a concurrent high thrombotic risk. The key to account for this overlap seems to be a careful appraisal of the relative bleeding/ischaemia risk trade-off. Third, patients on DAPT have to be followed-up strictly and DAPT dosages or duration should be modified promptly if severe adverse events occur. An important research question is how to improve current tools for decision-making, leading to the development of standardized definitions, race-specific risk scores, bleeding/ischaemia risk trade-off tools and guidelines to align clinical practice to patient's needs.

In conclusion, East Asian patients on DAPT suffer from more bleeding events compared with their Western counterpart. Current evidence on risk prediction and optimal DAPT regimens among the large and growing East Asian population is scarce, making management of these patients a tricky issue undermined by many pitfalls. Whereas further race-specific trials, dedicated risk prediction tools and regional or national guidelines are warranted and expected, the best strategy at present seems to personalize DAPT choices, dosages and duration in the attempt to minimize both ischaemic and bleeding complications.


#

Conflict of Interest

A.G. reports no conflict of interest. D.C. reports receiving payments as an individual for consulting fee or honorarium from Bayer and AstraZeneca. D.J.A. reports receiving payments as an individual for: (1) Consulting fee or honorarium from Amgen, Aralez, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Biosensors, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Chiesi, Daiichi-Sankyo, Eli Lilly, Haemonetics, Janssen, Merck, PLx Pharma, Pfizer, Sanofi and The Medicines Company; (2) Participation in review activities from CeloNova and St. Jude Medical. Institutional payments for grants from Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Biosensors, CeloNova, CSL Behring, Daiichi-Sankyo, Eisai, Eli-Lilly, Gilead, Janssen, Matsutani Chemical Industry Co., Merck, Novartis, Osprey Medical and Renal Guard Solutions; in addition, D.J.A. is recipient of a funding from the Scott R. MacKenzie Foundation and the NIH/NCATS Clinical and Translational Science Award to the University of Florida UL1 TR000064 and NIH/NHGRI U01 HG007269, outside the submitted work.

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  • 16 Gwon H-C, Hahn J-Y, Park KW. , et al. Six-month versus 12-month dual antiplatelet therapy after implantation of drug-eluting stents: the Efficacy of Xience/Promus Versus Cypher to Reduce Late Loss After Stenting (EXCELLENT) randomized, multicenter study. Circulation 2012; 125 (03) 505-513
  • 17 Kim B-K, Hong M-K, Shin D-H. , et al; RESET Investigators. A new strategy for discontinuation of dual antiplatelet therapy: the RESET Trial (REal Safety and Efficacy of 3-month dual antiplatelet Therapy following Endeavor zotarolimus-eluting stent implantation). J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 60 (15) 1340-1348
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  • 24 Misumida N, Aoi S, Kim SM, Ziada KM, Abdel-Latif A. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in East Asian patients with acute coronary syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Revasc Med 2018; 19 (06) 689-694
  • 25 Kang J, Kim H-S. The evolving concept of dual antiplatelet therapy after percutaneous coronary intervention: focus on unique feature of East Asian and “Asian Paradox”. Korean Circ J 2018; 48 (07) 537-551
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Address for correspondence

Dominick J. Angiolillo, MD, PhD
University of Florida College of Medicine–Jacksonville
655 West 8th Street, Jacksonville, FL 32209
United States   

  • References

  • 1 Capodanno D, Alfonso F, Levine GN. , et al. ACC/AHA versus ESC guidelines on dual antiplatelet therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018; 72 (23PA) 2915-2931
  • 2 Sibbing D, Angiolillo DJ, Huber K. Antithrombotic therapy for acute coronary syndrome: past, present and future. Thromb Haemost 2017; 117 (07) 1240-1248
  • 3 Capodanno D, Greco A. Risk stratification for bleeding in the elderly with acute coronary syndrome: not so simple. Thromb Haemost 2018; 118 (06) 949-952
  • 4 Garay A, Ariza-Solé A, Formiga F. , et al. Prediction of post discharge bleeding in elderly patients with acute coronary syndromes: insights from the BleeMACS registry. Thromb Haemost 2018; 118 (05) 929-938
  • 5 Biancari F, Brascia D, Onorati F. , et al. Prediction of severe bleeding after coronary surgery: the WILL-BLEED Risk Score. Thromb Haemost 2017; 117 (03) 445-456
  • 6 Capodanno D, Mehran R, Valgimigli M. , et al. Aspirin-free strategies in cardiovascular disease and cardioembolic stroke prevention. Nat Rev Cardiol 2018; 15 (08) 480-496
  • 7 Angiolillo DJ, Rollini F, Storey RF. , et al. International expert consensus on switching platelet P2Y12 receptor-inhibiting therapies. Circulation 2017; 136 (20) 1955-1975
  • 8 Moon JY, Franchi F, Rollini F, Angiolillo DJ. Evolution of coronary stent technology and implications for duration of dual antiplatelet therapy. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2018; 60 (4-5): 478-490
  • 9 Serebruany VL, Kim MH, Cabrera-Fuentes HA. , et al. Mortality and cancer after 12 versus 30 months dual antiplatelet therapy. The Korean Outcomes Registry Evaluating Antithrombotics (KOREA). Thromb Haemost 2017; 117 (05) 934-939
  • 10 Mauri L, Kereiakes DJ, Yeh RW. , et al; DAPT Study Investigators. Twelve or 30 months of dual antiplatelet therapy after drug-eluting stents. N Engl J Med 2014; 371 (23) 2155-2166
  • 11 Capodanno D, Angiolillo DJ. Tailoring duration of DAPT with risk scores. Lancet 2017; 389 (10073): 987-989
  • 12 Capodanno D, Angiolillo DJDJ. Impact of race and gender on antithrombotic therapy. Thromb Haemost 2010; 104 (03) 471-484
  • 13 Jeong Y-H. “East Asian paradox”: challenge for the current antiplatelet strategy of “one-guideline-fits-all races” in acute coronary syndrome. Curr Cardiol Rep 2014; 16 (05) 485
  • 14 Han Y, Xu B, Xu K. , et al. Six versus 12 months of dual antiplatelet therapy after implantation of biodegradable polymer sirolimus-eluting stent: randomized substudy of the I-LOVE-IT 2 trial. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2016; 9 (02) e003145
  • 15 Hong S-J, Shin D-H, Kim J-S. , et al; IVUS-XPL Investigators. 6-month versus 12-month dual-antiplatelet therapy following long everolimus-eluting stent implantation: the IVUS-XPL Randomized Clinical Trial. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2016; 9 (14) 1438-1446
  • 16 Gwon H-C, Hahn J-Y, Park KW. , et al. Six-month versus 12-month dual antiplatelet therapy after implantation of drug-eluting stents: the Efficacy of Xience/Promus Versus Cypher to Reduce Late Loss After Stenting (EXCELLENT) randomized, multicenter study. Circulation 2012; 125 (03) 505-513
  • 17 Kim B-K, Hong M-K, Shin D-H. , et al; RESET Investigators. A new strategy for discontinuation of dual antiplatelet therapy: the RESET Trial (REal Safety and Efficacy of 3-month dual antiplatelet Therapy following Endeavor zotarolimus-eluting stent implantation). J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 60 (15) 1340-1348
  • 18 Helft G, Steg PG, Le Feuvre C. , et al; OPTImal DUAL Antiplatelet Therapy Trial Investigators. Stopping or continuing clopidogrel 12 months after drug-eluting stent placement: the OPTIDUAL randomized trial. Eur Heart J 2016; 37 (04) 365-374
  • 19 Collet J-P, Silvain J, Barthélémy O. , et al; ARCTIC investigators. Dual-antiplatelet treatment beyond 1 year after drug-eluting stent implantation (ARCTIC-Interruption): a randomised trial. Lancet 2014; 384 (9954): 1577-1585
  • 20 Valgimigli M, Campo G, Monti M. , et al; Prolonging Dual Antiplatelet Treatment After Grading Stent-Induced Intimal Hyperplasia Study (PRODIGY) Investigators. Short- versus long-term duration of dual-antiplatelet therapy after coronary stenting: a randomized multicenter trial. Circulation 2012; 125 (16) 2015-2026
  • 21 Gilard M, Barragan P, Noryani AAL. , et al. 6- versus 24-month dual antiplatelet therapy after implantation of drug-eluting stents in patients nonresistant to aspirin: the randomized, multicenter ITALIC trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015; 65 (08) 777-786
  • 22 Kang J, Park KW, Palmerini T. , et al. Racial differences in ischemia/bleeding risk tradeoff during antiplatelet therapy: individual patient level landmark meta-analysis from seven RCTs. Thromb Haemost 2019; 119 (01) 149-162
  • 23 Levine GN, Jeong Y-H, Goto S. , et al. Expert consensus document: World Heart Federation expert consensus statement on antiplatelet therapy in East Asian patients with ACS or undergoing PCI. Nat Rev Cardiol 2014; 11 (10) 597-606
  • 24 Misumida N, Aoi S, Kim SM, Ziada KM, Abdel-Latif A. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in East Asian patients with acute coronary syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Revasc Med 2018; 19 (06) 689-694
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