Becoming a Successful Chief Medical Officer: A Primer

Abstract

This review examines the key factors to becoming a successful chief medical officer (CMO) in today's health care landscape. It explores the educational paths, leadership training, and real-world challenges CMOs face across academic and nonacademic settings in developed and developing countries. It provides actionable insights into leadership competencies, institutional dynamics, and key performance indicators (KPIs) that define excellence in this top medical leadership role.

Drawing upon literature identified through artificial intelligence-assisted searches and verified via academic databases, the review synthesizes key themes, including educational and leadership prerequisites, mentorship dynamics, and experiential learning. It contrasts the roles and expectations of CMOs in academic centers, nonacademic hospitals, and private hospitals, as well as the unique demands faced in developed versus developing nations. The review also examines strategic leadership competencies such as communication, financial literacy, and quality management. Practical challenges are analyzed, including credentialing, prioritization of education versus clinical duties, and infrastructural limitations in low-resource settings. Finally, we highlight actionable strategies to overcome systemic constraints and outline KPIs relevant to health care contexts.

This work offers a practical guide for aspiring CMOs, health care leaders, and policymakers seeking to strengthen clinical governance and institutional performance.

 

MissingLinkText

Keywords

chief medical officer (CMO) - medical leadership - clinical governance - academic medicine - developing nations - quality and safety - credentialing

Introduction

The chief medical officer (CMO), often called the Medical Director, plays a crucial role in today's health care landscape. As the leading clinical figure in a hospital, the CMO is responsible for ensuring that patient care aligns with the institution's overall strategy and performance goals. Over time, this role has transformed significantly, evolving from focusing solely on clinical oversight to a dynamic leadership position that demands skills in operations, education, strategy, quality, and compliance.[1] [2]

The CMO's responsibilities include bridging the gap between clinical practice and administrative tasks, mentoring health care staff, and championing the institution's missions in research and education.[3] [4] In academic medical centers, CMOs are essential for promoting medical education and advancing clinical research. On the other hand, CMOs in private and nonacademic hospitals often prioritize operational efficiency, patient satisfaction, and adherence to regulations.[5] [6] Despite these differences based on the setting, all CMOs must have strong leadership skills, clinical credibility, and strategic insight. As health care systems grow more complex, resource-limited, and focused on outcomes, the journey to becoming a successful CMO has become more structured and competitive.

This article offers a narrative review that delves into the key components necessary for becoming a successful CMO. It looks at vital training, mentorship, clinical and administrative experience, and contextual factors in developed and developing nations. Additionally, the review examines the distinctions in the role between academic and nonteaching environments. Drawing on current literature, this article aims to provide practical and strategic advice for aspiring doctors who wish to pursue or advance in this challenging and ever-evolving role.

 

MissingLinkText

Materials and Methods

This article is a critical narrative review of the literature. The primary research question guiding this review was: “How does one become a successful Chief Medical Officer, also known as Medical Director?” The inquiry encompasses educational pathways, leadership and administrative training, clinical experience, mentorship dynamics, and the broader geopolitical and institutional contexts CMOs operate. Special emphasis was placed on understanding role variations between academic medical centers and nonteaching institutions and the distinctions between health care systems in developed and developing nations.

The authors employed “Open Evidence” ( www.openevidence.com ), an artificial intelligence (AI)-powered platform synthesizing peer-reviewed academic content to identify relevant literature. An initial specific and detailed prompt generated the initial body of pertinent references. Following a preplanned strategy, a series of search follow-up questions elaborated on the searches. These citations were validated through additional manual searches in PubMed to resolve any omissions or exclusions.

A lead author composed a preliminary draft and circulated it among coauthors for substantive input regarding intellectual content, tone, and scholarly interpretation. The article underwent iterative revision during multilateral discussions, with all authors approving a final version unanimously. No new primary data were collected, or was any reanalysis of original data sets performed.

 

MissingLinkText

Emerging Themes

Pathways to CMO Leadership

To become a successful CMO, one needs a well-rounded mix of medical education, clinical know-how, leadership skills, and a knack for mentorship. It all starts with a medical degree (Doctor of Medicine or Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery) and often includes specialist qualifications such as Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP), Certificate of Completion of Specialist Training (CCST), or Medical Board Memberships since most CMOs come from the upper echelons of the medical field (think consultant or attending roles). However, as the responsibilities of a CMO continue to evolve, many opt to further their education with degrees like a Master of Business Administration (MBA) or Master of Health Administration (MHA). These advanced degrees offer valuable training in hospital management, financial analysis, and making executive decisions, allowing CMOs to bridge the gap between clinical practice and health care administration effectively.[1]

Leadership development is another key aspect of training for CMOs. This can happen through structured programs, fellowships, executive seminars, or leadership tracks sponsored by health systems. Some academic institutions even provide specialized pathways that weave leadership training into residency programs.[7] Plus, getting involved in quality improvement initiatives, patient safety programs, and teamwork during the early stages of their careers helps future CMOs build the essential skills needed for system-level leadership.[8] [9]

On top of formal education, hands-on clinical experience is crucial for establishing credibility and understanding the day-to-day realities of patient care. Aspiring CMOs usually spend years in clinical roles, often as department heads, division chiefs, or program directors. These positions expose them to leadership tasks like managing budgets, resolving conflicts, and supervising staff.[4]

Mentorship is also vital in the journey from clinician to executive. Great mentors guide emerging leaders through the intricate balance of clinical practice and health care administration, helping them navigate the challenges.

Mentorship is crucial when making the leap from clinician to executive. Great mentors help budding leaders navigate the tricky landscape of clinical practice and health care management. They offer guidance on strategic decision-making, navigating institutional politics, and understanding the nuances of leadership culture. Research has shown that formal mentorship programs and peer networking boost doctors' engagement and long-term success in leadership positions.[10] [11] Plus, mentorship encourages professional growth by fostering reflective practice, role modeling, and thoughtful career planning.[12] [13]

As illustrated in [Table 1], the path to becoming a CMO usually involves a mix of medical education, leadership training, and mentorship. Having an MBA or MHA can set strong candidates apart in competitive environments. Together, these elements work hand in hand to equip doctors for the strategic, interpersonal, and operational challenges they will encounter as top clinical executives.

Table 1 Core components of the pathway to chief medical officer leadership

Component	Description	Examples/Notes
Medical education	Foundational medical degree (MD or MBBS) plus Specialty degrees (e.g., CCST or Medical Board)	Prerequisite for all CMO roles
Advanced degrees	Formal training in administration or leadership	MBA, MHA, MPH, or equivalent
Clinical experience	Significant hands-on experience for credibility and insight	Roles such as department head, division chief, or program director
Leadership training	Structured or informal development of leadership competencies	Fellowships, seminars, and hospital-sponsored programs
Mentorship	Guided professional development through coaching and sponsorship	Formal or informal; supports decision-making and career planning
Quality improvement	Early involvement in systemic initiatives to build operational awareness	Patient safety programs, interprofessional teamwork
Strategic roles	Increasing involvement in cross-functional leadership and policymaking	Hospital board participation, strategic planning committees

Abbreviations: CCST, Certificate of Completion of Specialist Training; CMO, chief medical officer; MBA, Master of Business Administration; MBBS, Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery; MD, Doctor of Medicine; MHA, Master of Health Administration; MPH, Master of Public Health.

 

MissingLinkText

Essential Leadership Competencies

CMOs must cultivate and showcase essential leadership skills beyond their clinical know-how to manage their diverse responsibilities effectively. These skills are crucial for navigating the increasingly intricate organizational environments where CMOs work, especially as they connect areas like clinical care, administration, education, research, and strategic planning ([Table 1]).

One key competency is the ability to communicate well with various stakeholders. CMOs must clearly express the institution's priorities, resolve conflicts, and align the objectives of doctors, nurses, administrators, and governing boards. Strong communication and diplomacy are essential for bridging the historical gap between medical staff and hospital executives—if not handled carefully, this tension can hinder strategic alignment.[1] [3] In academic and nonacademic settings, CMOs must also engage in open and constructive conversations during sensitive processes like credentialing, privileging, and peer review.

Strategic thinking and the capacity to inspire a shared vision are just as important. CMOs must foresee their institutions' long-term needs, including workforce development, capital investments, and shifts in regulatory policies and patient demographics. Setting a vision requires aligning departmental objectives with the larger institutional strategies and promoting collaboration across various disciplines and departments.[14] [15] For instance, in academic centers, strategic planning often involves balancing generating revenue and maintaining scholarly productivity. At the same time, private hospitals might focus more on market expansion and enhancing patient satisfaction.[3]

Another essential skill for a CMO is a solid grasp of financial management. As health care systems focus on value-based care and cost efficiency, CMOs must be adept at reading financial reports, engaging in budgeting discussions, and making informed decisions about resource allocation. A good understanding of revenue cycles, return on investment, and the financial impact of clinical choices allows CMOs to play a significant role in executive-level planning.[1] That is why many CMOs opt for formal education in health administration or business as part of their journey to leadership.

Equally vital is the CMO's role in overseeing quality and safety. This involves implementing and tracking initiatives to reduce medical errors, enhance patient outcomes, and ensure compliance with national and international standards. CMOs often spearhead efforts in utilization review, preparing for accreditation, and developing policies—all of which demand a thorough understanding of clinical operations and regulatory guidelines.[3] [4] Additionally, as hospitals increasingly turn to data analytics for performance improvement, CMOs must be skilled in interpreting and applying quality metrics.

Emotional intelligence is another key trait for CMOs. It refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage one's emotions and those of others. This skill is crucial for building trust, fostering collaboration, and leading effectively during times of crisis or organizational change.[14] [16] Leaders with high emotional intelligence are generally better at navigating resistance to change, mentoring future leaders, and maintaining their composure in high-pressure situations.

Adaptability is crucial, especially for CMOs navigating the challenges of low-resource or rapidly evolving health care settings. Take developing countries, for example—CMOs there often find themselves without the luxury of a robust support system or formal leadership training. Instead, they lean on hands-on experience, community involvement, and local creativity to achieve their institutional objectives. Despite these limitations, the essential skills needed—like strategic vision, effective communication, financial savvy, and emotional intelligence—stay consistent regardless of the environment.[1] [17]

Today's CMOs wear many hats: they are a clinician, a strategist, a manager, and a mentor all rolled into one. Building this varied skill set demands a dedicated focus on leadership development, collaboration across different fields, and a commitment to lifelong learning. Whether working in a teaching hospital in a developed nation or a rural clinic in a low-income area, the success of a CMO relies on skillfully balancing and integrating these core competencies.

 

MissingLinkText

Variations in CMO Roles Across Settings

The role of the CMO can look quite different depending on where they work and the specific context of their institution. In academic medical centers, for instance, CMOs are closely linked to the institution's core mission, which includes clinical care, education, and research ([Table 2]). They align strategic goals across various departments, manage residency and fellowship training programs, and encourage scholarly work. Their responsibilities often include ensuring that the institution meets the standards set by accrediting organizations, fostering faculty development, and nurturing a culture of inquiry and innovation in clinical practice.[4] [18] Additionally, they may be involved in designing curricula, mentoring clinician-educators, and coordinating educational programs that shape the future of medicine—unless a chief academic officer oversees those aspects.[19] [20]

Table 2 Variations in CMO roles by institution type and geographic setting[a]

Setting	Primary responsibilities	Key challenges	Common competencies needed
Academic medical centers	Education, research oversight, compliance, mentoring	Balancing the tripartite mission, resource allocation	Strategic vision, academic leadership
Nonacademic and private hospitals	Operations, quality, patient experience, cost containment	Financial pressures, workforce management	Financial literacy, efficiency, and leadership
Developed nations	Structured leadership training, access to resources	Complex governance, alignment across large systems	Policy acumen, systems thinking
Developing nations	Clinical service expansion, infrastructure building, and informal leadership training	Resource scarcity, limited mentorship, and ethical dilemmas	Adaptability, innovation, and cultural competence

Abbreviation: CMO, chief medical officer.

^a Key variations between academic versus nonteaching/private institutions and the situations in developed and developing countries.

Conversely, CMOs in nonacademic hospitals and private health care settings tend to concentrate more on clinical operations, patient safety, and financial performance ([Table 2]). These environments usually do not have formal academic missions, which allows CMOs to focus more on cost control, optimizing patient flow, ensuring regulatory compliance, and implementing quality improvement systems.[3] Their duties include managing peer reviews, utilization management, infection control, credentialing, and long-term clinical planning. In private hospitals, the CMO's role can also encompass marketing, public relations, and developing service lines, reflecting a more business-focused approach to health care leadership.[21]

Despite these differences in context, CMOs in both settings share a fundamental responsibility: to ensure that health care delivery meets or exceeds safety and quality standards. However, how they fulfill this duty can vary significantly ([Table 2]). For example, academic CMOs often struggle to balance clinical responsibilities with teaching and research, creating resource allocation and faculty engagement tensions. Juggling these competing priorities requires a strategic vision.[5] [6]

The geographical location greatly impacts how a CMO operates ([Table 2]). In more developed countries, CMOs often enjoy the perks of structured leadership development programs, access to financial and tech resources, and clearly defined roles within their institutions. Formal succession planning and performance evaluations are common practices that help support leadership roles. Conversely, in developing nations, CMOs tend to face resource limitations and systemic challenges. Their path to leadership often leans more on informal mentorship and hands-on learning rather than formal academic training.[22] The hurdles posed by inadequate infrastructure, limited opportunities for ongoing education, and inconsistent policy enforcement can be daunting, pushing CMOs to be flexible, innovative, and savvy in navigating political landscapes.[23] [24]

Despite these differences, CMOs everywhere need to build similar essential skills in leadership, communication, and systems thinking. The specific institutional and national context may shift the focus on certain functions, but the core competencies remain vital. While CMOs in academic settings often serve as strategic integrators juggling multiple missions, those in private sectors or resource-strapped environments must prioritize immediate performance and operational efficiency. These differences are crucial for customizing global leadership development programs and setting appropriate expectations for CMOs.

 

MissingLinkText

Practical Challenges and Solutions

CMOs navigate intricate institutional landscapes that require technical know-how and sharp problem-solving abilities. In academic and nonacademic settings, they often face various operational, regulatory, interpersonal, and structural challenges. How these hurdles are tackled can significantly impact health care institutions' overall performance and strategic direction.

A key responsibility for CMOs, particularly in private hospitals and nonacademic settings, is overseeing the credentialing and privileging of medical staff. Credentialing is the process of thoroughly verifying a health care provider's qualifications, which includes their education, training, licenses, and past experiences. On the other hand, privileging is about granting a doctor or provider the authority to carry out specific clinical tasks based on proven competence. These processes are vital for ensuring patient safety and legal compliance, shaping the organizational culture and trust among staff. CMOs need to spearhead the creation and enforcement of strong credentialing policies, which cover initial credentialing, recredentialing, and ongoing performance evaluations.[25] [26] [27] They also play a crucial role in mediating disputes when practitioners contest credentialing decisions or seek expanded privileges, ensuring fairness while maintaining high standards of care.

Another significant challenge for CMOs, especially in academic institutions, is balancing clinical duties with educational goals. They must find ways to weave medical education into everyday clinical operations without sacrificing either mission. This often means rethinking workflows, nurturing a culture of academic inquiry, and ensuring teaching responsibilities are equitably shared among faculty. Research indicates that aligning clinical and educational missions can be enhanced by tapping into shared institutional goals, providing access to actionable data, and connecting learners with the system's infrastructure through quality improvement initiatives.

In developing countries, CMOs encounter unique challenges primarily due to limitations in health care infrastructure, human resources, and financial backing ([Table 2]). Many low-resource settings often struggle with a shortage of medical supplies, diagnostic tools, and even basic clinical equipment. Moreover, health care providers in these areas may not prioritize the management of noncommunicable diseases, which are increasingly becoming a significant burden.[23] CMOs must develop innovative and often locally adapted solutions to tackle these systemic issues. For instance, enhancing primary and secondary care systems through workforce training and public health initiatives has shown to be effective in various regions.[28] [29]

Technology also presents a promising way to bridge these infrastructure gaps. Telemedicine platforms, mobile health apps, and remote monitoring tools can extend specialist support to underserved communities while offering ongoing education for local health care providers. The introduction of electronic intensive care unit systems and mobile consultation tools has significantly improved care delivery in resource-limited settings by facilitating real-time clinical decision-making support.[30] In these environments, CMOs must also cultivate and sustain strong partnerships with international organizations, which can offer both financial aid and technical know-how.[31] [32]

Sustainability remains a crucial concern in these contexts. Simply donating equipment is not a long-term fix; CMOs need to ensure that biomedical equipment is suitable for the local environment, can be maintained with local resources, and is backed by sufficient staff training. Establishing local maintenance partnerships and focusing on preventive servicing practices are recommended strategies to ensure that critical medical equipment continues to function effectively.[33]

Cultural and ethical challenges add layers of complexity to leadership across various settings. CMOs often navigate deeply rooted social norms and values that can clash with international medical ethics or standards of care. This situation demands a strong sense of cultural competence and ethical awareness.[34] Leadership training in these environments should encompass ethical decision-making frameworks, stakeholder engagement, and community-based participatory methods.

To sum it up, the practical hurdles CMOs encounter are as varied as the environments in which they operate. Whether dealing with credentialing disputes and academic-clinical tensions in well-resourced hospitals or facing infrastructural and ethical challenges in developing nations, CMOs must demonstrate adaptability, resilience, and strategic insight. Finding solutions requires systemic change, technological advancements, international cooperation, and leadership practices tailored to specific contexts. Only by tackling these multifaceted challenges can CMOs fulfill their role in leading safe, efficient, and equitable health care systems.

 

MissingLinkText

 

MissingLinkText

Key Performance Indicators

To understand how a CMO performs, they must be well-acquainted with the key performance indicators (KPIs) used to assess their work ([Table 3]). The KPIs for CMOs in academic medical centers are quite different from those in nonacademic hospitals, largely because of their unique responsibilities, core missions, and how they blend clinical care with medical education and research. While both institutions strive to provide top-notch health care, their strategic goals and operational structures significantly influence their KPIs ([Table 3]).

Table 3 Comparative key performance indicators (KPIs) for CMO in academic versus nonacademic hospital settings

KPI domain	Academic medical centers	Nonacademic hospitals
Clinical quality and safety	Adherence to evidence-based guidelines, mortality/readmission rates, and patient safety metrics	Similar indicators, with a stronger emphasis on real-time clinical outcomes and cost-efficiency
Educational outcomes	Residency/fellowship accreditation, board pass rates, curriculum development, faculty mentoring	Not applicable or minimal (e.g., staff onboarding or CME initiatives)
Research productivity	Scholarly publications, grant acquisition, and clinical trial engagement	Typically not emphasized
Patient satisfaction	Important, but may be affected by teaching environment complexity	High strategic priority; directly linked to revenue and community reputation
Operational efficiency	Length of stay (LOS), case-mix-adjusted cost per case, throughput	LOS, bed turnover rates, service line efficiency, wait times
Regulatory compliance	Accreditation standards and research compliance	Licensing, inspection readiness, infection control, and billing compliance
Community engagement	Public health education, academic outreach programs	Direct local outreach, public health campaigns, and alignment with community needs
Leadership development and succession planning	Mentorship programs, institutional leadership tracks	Often informal or ad hoc; dependent on institutional resources

Abbreviations: CME, Continuing Medical Education; CMO, chief medical officer.

Clinical quality and patient safety are top priorities in academic and nonacademic centers. Important indicators include adherence to established clinical guidelines, performance on patient safety metrics, and outcome measures like mortality and readmission rates.[35] These KPIs highlight the academic medical center's commitment to clinical excellence and training the next generation of health care professionals.

Another key category of KPIs for CMOs in academic settings revolves around educational outcomes. This includes metrics that assess the success and sustainability of residency and fellowship programs, such as board certification pass rates, the effectiveness of educational curricula, and the strength of faculty development initiatives.[4] Maintaining and enhancing these educational aspects is crucial to effectively fulfilling the academic mission.

Research productivity sets academic centers apart. CMOs are often assessed based on the number of scholarly publications they produce, the amount and sources of grant funding they secure, and how actively their institutions participate in clinical trials and translational research.[36] These factors highlight how crucial innovation and knowledge creation are in academic environments.

Patient satisfaction is another KPI, though it can be more complicated in teaching hospitals due to the diverse nature of care provided. While academic centers might receive different patient experience scores than nonacademic ones, these metrics are still vital for institutional growth and accountability.[35]

Operational efficiency is also a major focus, gauged by metrics like average length of stay, resource use, and cost per case. These numbers are usually adjusted for case mix, acuity levels, and other relevant factors to give a clearer picture of performance.[35]

Conversely, CMOs in nonacademic hospitals tend to concentrate more on clinical operations and patient-centered care. Clinical quality and safety are still fundamental KPIs, much like in academic centers, but there is a stronger focus on direct patient care and immediate service delivery.[35] These hospitals aim to streamline clinical workflows to enhance both efficiency and effectiveness.

Patient satisfaction is especially crucial in nonacademic hospitals. High patient experience scores are often closely linked to how hospitals are reimbursed and their reputation in the community, making it a key focus area.[4] [35] CMOs work hard to create a culture that prioritizes service excellence and responsiveness to patients' needs in these environments.

Operational efficiency is another major aspect of nonacademic hospital KPIs. Here, the emphasis is on metrics like patient throughput, reducing the length of hospital stays, and managing costs effectively. The aim is to deliver high-quality care while reducing waste and delays.[35]

Regulatory compliance is a critical performance area in nonacademic hospitals, where CMOs need to ensure that all health care regulations and accreditation standards are strictly followed. This includes being ready for inspections, maintaining accurate documentation, and adhering to both national laws and local regulations.[4]

Finally, community health initiatives play a vital role in nonteaching hospitals. CMOs often lead or support local health improvement projects and outreach programs, ensuring hospital efforts align with broader public health objectives and the community's well-being.[4]

In summary, while academic medical centers require CMOs to juggle the threefold mission of clinical care, education, and research, nonacademic hospitals need a sharper focus on clinical operations, patient satisfaction, regulatory compliance, and their impact on local health. The KPI frameworks reflect these priorities and help guide leadership in achieving specific mission-related outcomes.

 

MissingLinkText

Strengths and Limitations

This article is an introductory primer rather than a comprehensive review. It chose the important criteria and pathways to become a successful CMO with a special interest in differences between contrasting settings such as academic and service-focused facilities and the different challenges in developed and developing regions. It ends with underscoring the KPIs against which a CMO expects to be appraised. There are a few limitations; the use of AI for literature is novel. However, this was supplemented by an independent search in a major literature database. This approach helped ensure the source material's completeness and reliability. Although it is meant to be a global audience, literature is mostly from the West, limiting generalizability in some circumstances. It mostly followed North American nomenclature as it is widely recognized worldwide with some local differences.

 

MissingLinkText

Conclusion

The world of health care leadership is changing fast, calling for a new kind of doctor-executive. While the old skills still matter, the CMO of tomorrow will do more than oversee operations—they will be at the forefront of transformation. In an era where resources are tight and challenges are growing, being a clinical genius is not enough anymore; having strategic vision, emotional intelligence, and a big-picture mindset are now essential. Future studies should dive into competency-based evaluation methods, leadership training in global health systems, and how AI can aid administrative decision-making. Becoming a successful CMO is a journey that combines medical knowledge with leadership, communication, and strategic thinking. Although the roles and challenges can differ from one institution to another and across regions, the fundamental principles of effective leadership—trust, accountability, adaptability, and collaboration—are universal. As health care systems grapple with increasing complexity, investing in preparing and supporting our medical leaders is more important than ever.

 

MissingLinkText

 

MissingLinkText

Conflict of Interest

None declared.

Declaration of GenAI Use

During the composition of this review, the authors used generative AI tools solely for literature discovery and drafting assistance. Specifically, Open Evidence was consulted on May 15, 2025. The authors reviewed and edited all substantive content, assuming full accountability for the manuscript's intellectual integrity and originality. This disclaimer does not apply to standard software tools for grammar, spelling, or reference formatting.

Authors' Contributions

S.A.B. proposed the idea, collected the data, and wrote the first draft. H.T.S.B. contributed to the concept development and revised the draft. All authors further developed the manuscript and agreed on its final version.

Compliance with Ethical Principles

No ethical approval is required for a narrative review article type of study.

• References

• 1 Harolds JA. Quality and safety in healthcare, part LXX: qualifications and leadership of the chief medical officer. Clin Nucl Med 2021a; 46 (06) 471-473
• 2 Onyango R, Baker MC, Faerberg J, Haberman M, McCoy R, Orlowski J. Evolution of the chief medical officer role in teaching hospitals and health systems. J Healthc Manag 2023; 68 (02) 121-131
• 3 Harolds JA. Quality and safety in health care, part LXIX: introduction to the responsibilities of the chief medical officer. Clin Nucl Med 2021b; 46 (05) 402-404
• 4 Longnecker DE, Patton M, Dickler RM. Roles and responsibilities of chief medical officers in member organizations of the Association of American Medical Colleges. Acad Med 2007; 82 (03) 258-263
• 5 Feussner JR, Landefeld CS, Weinberger SE. Change, challenge and opportunity: departments of medicine and their leaders. Am J Med Sci 2016; 351 (01) 3-10
• 6 Wong BM, Holmboe ES. Transforming the academic faculty perspective in graduate medical education to better align educational and clinical outcomes. Acad Med 2016; 91 (04) 473-479
• 7 Ackerly DC, Sangvai DG, Udayakumar K. et al. Training the next generation of physician-executives: an innovative residency pathway in management and leadership. Acad Med 2011; 86 (05) 575-579
• 8 Heitz C, Hamilton GC. The academic chair in emergency medicine: current demographics and survey results identifying the skills and characteristics desired for the role. Acad Emerg Med 2011; 18 (09) 981-987
• 9 Warren OJ, Carnall R. Medical leadership: why it's important, what is required, and how we develop it. Postgrad Med J 2011; 87 (1023): 27-32
• 10 Fairchild DG, Benjamin EM, Gifford DR, Huot SJ. Physician leadership: enhancing the career development of academic physician administrators and leaders. Acad Med 2004; 79 (03) 214-218
• 11 Imran D, Rog K, Gallichio J, Alston L. The challenges of becoming and being a clinician manager: a qualitative exploration of the perception of medical doctors in senior leadership roles at a large Australian health service. BMC Health Serv Res 2021; 21 (01) 351
• 12 Markuns JF, Fraser B, Orlander JD. The path to physician leadership in community health centers: implications for training. Fam Med 2010; 42 (06) 403-407
• 13 Borges NJ, Navarro AM, Grover A, Hoban JD. How, when, and why do physicians choose careers in academic medicine? A literature review. Acad Med 2010; 85 (04) 680-686
• 14 Stoller JK. Leadership essentials for CHEST medicine professionals: models, attributes, and styles. Chest 2021; 159 (03) 1147-1154
• 15 Watson RT. Rediscovering the medical school. Acad Med 2003; 78 (07) 659-665
• 16 van de Riet MCP, Berghout MA, Buljac-Samardžić M, van Exel J, Hilders CGJM. What makes an ideal hospital-based medical leader? Three views of healthcare professionals and managers: a case study. PLoS One 2019; 14 (06) e0218095
• 17 Rotenstein LS, Huckman RS, Cassel CK. Making doctors effective managers and leaders: a matter of health and well-being. Acad Med 2021; 96 (05) 652-654
• 18 Berns JS, Goldstein JL, Hartmann DM, Simons K, Opas L. The expanding role of designated institutional officials in graduate medical education. Acad Med 2025; 100 (02) 131-136
• 19 Levinson W, Branch Jr WT, Kroenke K. Clinician-educators in academic medical centers: a two-part challenge. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129 (01) 59-64
• 20 Pellegrini Jr VD, Guzick DS, Wilson DE, Evarts CM. Governance of academic health centers and systems: a conceptual framework for analysis. Acad Med 2019; 94 (01) 12-16
• 21 Kirkpatrick I, Bullinger B, Dent M, Lega F. The development of medical-manager roles in European hospital systems: a framework for comparison. Int J Clin Pract 2012; 66 (02) 121-124
• 22 Denis JL, van Gestel N. Medical doctors in healthcare leadership: theoretical and practical challenges. BMC Health Serv Res 2016; 16 (Suppl 2, Suppl 2): 158
• 23 Madede T, Mavume Mangunyane E, Munguambe K. et al. Human resources challenges in the management of diabetes and hypertension in Mozambique. PLoS One 2024; 19 (03) e0297676
• 24 Rahman KMT, Rayna SE, Khan FA. et al. Challenges faced by medical officers in providing healthcare services at Upazila health complexes and district hospitals in Bangladesh - a qualitative study. Lancet Reg Health Southeast Asia 2024; 24: 100398
• 25 Harolds JA. Quality and safety in healthcare, part LXXII: credentialing and privileging. Clin Nucl Med 2021c; 46 (11) 908-910
• 26 Rauch DA. Committee on Hospital Care, Section on Hospital Medicine. Medical staff appointment and delineation of pediatric privileges in hospitals. Pediatrics 2012; 129 (04) 784-787
• 27 Gupta R, Sehgal N, Arora VM. Aligning delivery system and training missions in academic medical centers to promote high-value care. Acad Med 2019; 94 (09) 1289-1292
• 28 Geiling J, Burkle Jr FM, Amundson D. et al; Task Force for Mass Critical Care, Task Force for Mass Critical Care. Resource-poor settings: infrastructure and capacity building: care of the critically ill and injured during pandemics and disasters: CHEST consensus statement. Chest 2014; 146 (4, Suppl): e156S-e167S
• 29 Endalamaw A, Khatri RB, Erku D. et al. Barriers and strategies for primary health care workforce development: synthesis of evidence. BMC Prim Care 2024; 25 (01) 99
• 30 Alhalaseh YN, Elshabrawy HA, Erashdi M, Shahait M, Abu-Humdan AM, Al-Hussaini M. Allocation of the “already” limited medical resources amid the COVID-19 pandemic, an iterative ethical encounter including suggested solutions from a real life encounter. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 7: 616277
• 31 Aslam MZ, Trail M, Cassell III AK, Khan AB, Payne S. Establishing a sustainable healthcare environment in low- and middle-income countries. BJU Int 2022; 129 (02) 134-142
• 32 Kehinde T, Biwott J, Sund G, Kynes JM. Machines matter too: including biomedical engineering partnerships in global health initiatives. Lancet Glob Health 2024; 12 (11) e1905-e1909
• 33 Webber CM, Martínez-Gálvez G, Higuita ML. et al. Developing strategies for sustainable medical equipment maintenance in under-resourced settings. Ann Glob Health 2020; 86 (01) 39
• 34 Iserson KV, Biros MH, James Holliman C. Challenges in international medicine: ethical dilemmas, unanticipated consequences, and accepting limitations. Acad Emerg Med 2012; 19 (06) 683-692
• 35 Shahian DM, Nordberg P, Meyer GS. et al. Contemporary performance of U.S. teaching and nonteaching hospitals. Acad Med 2012; 87 (06) 701-708
• 36 Cardinaal E, Dubas-Jakóbczyk K, Behmane D. et al. Governance of academic medical centres in changing healthcare systems: an international comparison. Health Policy 2022; 126 (07) 613-618

Publication History

Article published online:
16 July 2025