Spine Imaging

Cynthia T. Chin

doi:10.1055/s-2002-36544

Seminars in Neurology, Table of Contents

Semin Neurol 2002; 22(2): 205-220
DOI: 10.1055/s-2002-36544

Spine Imaging

Cynthia T. Chin

Division of Neuroradiology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California

Abstract

ABSTRACT

Imaging of the vertebral column and spinal cord has evolved from plain film evaluation to computed tomography (CT), CT in conjunction with myelography, and most recently magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Currently, MRI has essentially replaced other imaging modalities in evaluation of the spine because of its superiority in demonstrating anatomic detail and multiplanar capability. The following is a review of the various imaging modalities available and their application in the evaluation of common spinal disorders.

KEYWORDS

Spine imaging - review

Full Text

References

REFERENCES

1 Smoker W R, Godersky J C, Knutzon R K, Keyes W D, Norman D, Bergman W. The role of MR imaging in evaluating metastatic spinal disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1987; 149 1241-1248
2 Modic M T, Steinberg P M, Ross J S, Masaryk T J, Carter J R. Degenerative disk disease: assessment of changes in vertebral body marrow with MR imaging. Radiology . 1988; 166 193-199
3 Gillams A R, Soto J A, Carter A P. Fast spin echo vs conventional spin echo in cervical spine imaging. Eur Radiol . 1997; 7 1211-1214
4 Pyhtinen J, Laitinen J. Cervical intervertebral foramen narrowing and myelographic nerve root sleeve deformities. Neuroradiology . 1993; 35 596-597
5 Tsuruda J S, Norman D, Dillon W, Newton T H, Mills D G. Three-dimensional gradient-recalled MR imaging as a screening tool for the diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1989; 10 1263-1271
6 Jahnke R W, Hart B L. Cervical stenosis, spondylosis, and herniated disc disease. Radiol Clin North Am . 1991; 29 777-791
7 Sherman J L, Nassaux P Y, Citrin C M. Measurements of the normal cervical spinal cord on MR imaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1990; 11 369-372
8 Ullrich C G, Binet E F, Sanecki M G, Kieffer S A. Quantitative assessment of the lumbar spinal canal by computed tomography. Radiology . 1980; 134 137-143
9 Van de Kelft E, van Vyve M. Diagnostic imaging algorithm for cervical soft disc herniation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 1994; 57 724-728
10 Frocrain L, Duvauferrier R, de Korvin B, Ramee A, Pawlotsky Y. Comparison of MRI and scanning coupled with myelography in the diagnosis of cervicobrachial neuralgia. J Radiol . 1988; 69 99-102
11 Zanetti M, Hodler J. [Vertebral pain in advanced age: radiological diagnosis]. Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax . 1996; 85 1360-1372
12 Brant-Zawadzki M, Jensen M. Spinal nomenclature. Spine . 1995; 20 388-390
13 Aguila L A, Piraino D W, Modic M T, Dudley A W, Duchesneau P M, Weinstein M A. The intranuclear cleft of the intervertebral disk: magnetic resonance imaging. Radiology . 1985; 155 155-158
14 Grenier N, Grossman R I, Schiebler M L, Yeager B A, Goldberg H I, Kressel H Y. Degenerative lumbar disk disease: pitfalls and usefulness of MR imaging in detection of vacuum phenomenon. Radiology . 1987; 164 861-865
15 Ross J S, Modic M T, Masaryk T J. Tears of the anulus fibrosus: assessment with Gd-DTPA-enhanced MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1990; 154 159-162
16 Yang P J, Seeger J F, Dzioba R B. High-dose iv contrast in CT scanning of the postoperative lumbar spine. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1986; 7 703-707
17 Bundschuh C V, Modic M T, Ross J S, Masaryk T J, Bohlman H. Epidural fibrosis and recurrent disk herniation in the lumbar spine: MR imaging assessment. AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1988; 150 923-932
18 Hueftle M G, Modic M T, Ross J S. Lumbar spine: postoperative MR imaging with Gd-DTPA. Radiology . 1988; 167 817-824
19 Jinkins J R. MR of enhancing nerve roots in the unoperated lumbosacral spine. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1993; 14 193-202
20 Jinkins J R, Whittemore A R, Bradley W G. The anatomic basis of vertebrogenic pain and the autonomic syndrome associated with lumbar disk extrusion. AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1989; 152 1277-1289
21 Jensen M C, Brant-Zawadzki M N, Obuchowski N, Modic M T, Malkasian D, Ross J S. Magnetic resonance imaging of the lumbar spine in people without back pain. N Engl J Med . 1994; 331 69-73
22 Tartaglino L M, Friedman D P, Flanders A E, Lublin F D, Knobler R L, Liem M. Multiple sclerosis in the spinal cord: MR appearance and correlation with clinical parameters. Radiology . 1995; 195 725-732
23 Larsson E M, Holtas S, Nilsson O. Gd-DTPA-enhanced MR of suspected spinal multiple sclerosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1989; 10 1071-1076
24 Kidd D, Thorpe J W, Kendall B E. MRI dynamics of brain and spinal cord in progressive multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 1996; 60 15-19
25 Wiebe S, Lee D H, Karlik S J. Serial cranial and spinal cord magnetic resonance imaging in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol . 1992; 32 643-650
26 Lycklama A, Nijeholt G J, Barkhof F. MR of the spinal cord in multiple sclerosis: relation to clinical subtype and disability. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1997; 18 1041-1048
27 Poser C M, Paty D W, Scheinberg L. New diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: guidelines for research protocols. Ann Neurol . 1983; 13 227-231
28 Trop I, Bourgouin P M, Lapierre Y. Multiple sclerosis of the spinal cord: diagnosis and follow-up with contrast-enhanced MR and correlation with clinical activity. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1998; 19 1025-1033
29 Campi A, Filippi M, Comi G. Acute transverse myelopathy: spinal and cranial MR study with clinical follow-up. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1995; 16 115-123
30 Choi K H, Lee K S, Chung S O. Idiopathic transverse myelitis: MR characteristics. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1996; 17 1151-1160
31 Holtas S, Basibuyuk N, Fredriksson K. MRI in acute transverse myelopathy. Neuroradiology . 1993; 35 221-226
32 Tartaglino L M, Flanders A E, Rapoport R J. Intramedullary causes of myelopathy. Semin Ultrasound CT MR . 1994; 15 158-188
33 Gilbertson J R, Miller G M, Goldman M S, Marsh W R. Spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas: MR and myelographic findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1995; 16 2049-2057
34 Chong J, Di Rocco A, Tagliati M, Danisi F, Simpson D M, Atlas S W. MR findings in AIDS-associated myelopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1999; 20 1412-1416
35 Sartoretti-Schefer S, Blattler T, Wichmann W. Spinal MRI in vacuolar myelopathy, and correlation with histopathological findings. Neuroradiology . 1997; 39 865-869
36 Marcus Jr B R, Million R R. The incidence of myelitis after irradiation of the cervical spinal cord. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys . 1990; 19 3-8
37 Whalen J L, Brown M L, McLeod R, Fitzgerald Jr H R. Limitations of indium leukocyte imaging for the diagnosis of spine infections. Spine . 1991; 16 193-197
38 Gillams A R, Chaddha B, Carter A P. MR appearances of the temporal evolution and resolution of infectious spondylitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1996; 166 903-907
39 Friedmand D P, Hills J R. Cervical epidural spinal infection: MR imaging characteristics. AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1994; 163 699-704
40 Stabler A, Baur A, Kruger A, Weiss M, Helmberger T, Reiser M. [Differential diagnosis of erosive osteochondrosis and bacterial spondylitis: magnetic resonance tomography (MRT)]. Rofo Fortschr Geb Rontgenstr Neuen Bildgeb Verfahr . 1998; 168 421-428
41 Algra P R, Bloem J L, Tissing H, Falke T H, Arndt J W, Verboom L J. Detection of vertebral metastases: comparison between MR imaging and bone scintigraphy. Radiographics . 1991; 11 219-232
42 Avrahami E, Tadmor R, Dally O, Hadar H. Early MR demonstration of spinal metastases in patients with normal radiographs and CT and radionuclide bone scans. J Comput Assist Tomogr . 1989; 13 598-602
43 Baur A, Stabler A, Bruning R. Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of bone marrow: differentiation of benign versus pathologic compression fractures. Radiology . 1998; 207 349-356
44 Schaefer D M, Flanders A, Northrup B E, Doan H T, Osterholm J L. Magnetic resonance imaging of acute cervical spine trauma: correlation with severity of neurologic injury. Spine . 1989; 14 1090-1095
45 Flanders A E, Schaefer D M, Doan H T, Mishkin M M, Gonzalez C F, Northrup B E. Acute cervical spine trauma: correlation of MR imaging findings with degree of neurologic deficit. Radiology . 1990; 177 25-33
46 Silberstein M, Tress B M, Hennessy O. Prediction of neurologic outcome in acute spinal cord injury: the role of CT and MR. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol . 1992; 13 1597-1608