Zusammenfassung
Einleitung: Das Ziel der Sekundärprophylaxe nach zerebraler Ischämie ist eine langfristige Hemmung
der Thrombogenese um Rezidivereignisse zu verhindern. Thrombozytenaggregationshemmer
(TAH) leisten laut Metaanalysen einen erheblichen Beitrag zur Reduktion des Rezidivrisikos
nach TIA oder Schlaganfall mit einer relativen Risikoreduktion (RRR) von ca. 22 %.
Das Ziel dieser Übersicht ist es, eine Zusammenfassung und kritische Reflektion der
relevanten Studien und Metaanalysen zur Sekundärprophylaxe nach Schlaganfall sowie
eine gezielte differenzialtherapeutische Empfehlung zu geben. Methoden: Grundlage der Arbeit ist die ausführliche Sichtung der Literatur zu TAH in der Sekundärprophylaxe
nach zerebraler Ischämie vor allem der letzten 10 Jahre. Neben den klassischen Metaanalysen
der Antiplatelet Trialists, werden die relevanten Einzelstudien (u. a. CATS, TASS,
ESPS 2, CURE, CAPRIE) sowie Metaanalysen und post hoc Analysen zu diesen Studien referiert
und interpretiert. Die Therapieempfehlungen orientieren sich an den Empfehlungen und
Leitlinien nationaler (DGN), europäischer (EUSI) und internationaler (AHA/ASA) Fachgesellschaften.
Die aktuelle Literatur zu Nebenwirkungen und pharmakologischen Interaktionen ist in
die Übersicht inkorporiert worden. Schlussfolgerungen: ASS führt nach TIA oder Schlaganfall zu einer leichten Senkung des Rezidivrisikos
von ca. 13 % und ist in niedrigen Dosen (50 - 325 mg/Tag) bei gleicher Effektivität
besser verträglich. Ticlopidin ist aufgrund des Nebenwirkungsspektrums (Neutropenie,
TTP) ein Reservemedikament. Clopidogrel ist bei vaskulären Patienten in der Sekundärprävention
vaskulärer Ereignisse (Schlaganfall, Herzinfarkt, Tod vaskulärer Ursache) besser als
ASS (RRR 8,7 %). Dieser Effekt ist v. a. bei kardiovaskulären Hoch-Risiko-Patienten
deutlicher ausgeprägt. Dipyridamol+ASS ist bei Patienten mit TIA/Schlaganfall besser
in der Sekundärprävention erneuter Schlaganfälle (RRR ca. 23 %) als ASS (im indirekten
Vergleich auch als Clopidogrel), nicht aber peripher- und kardiovaskulärer Rezidivereignisse.
Demnach sollte primär Clopidogrel bei Patienten mit kardiovaskulären Risikofaktoren
oder ASS-Unverträglichkeit und primär Dipyridamol/ASS bei TIA/Schlaganfallpatienten
mit niedriger kardiovaskulärer Komorbidität verschrieben werden. Studien zur Kombination
von Clopidogrel/ASS (MATCH, CHARISMA) sowie zum Vergleich der Kombinationen (PRoFESS)
stehen aus. Die Kombination Clopidogrel/ASS sollte derzeit im zerebrovaskulären Bereich
nur im Rahmen von Studienprotokollen oder eines individuellen Heilversuches gegeben
werden.
Abstract
Introduction: The goal of secondary prophylaxis following cerebral ischemia is a long lasting inhibition
of thrombogenesis to prevent recurrent stroke or other vascular events. Platelet inhibitors
(PI) according to meta-analyses lead to a relative risk reduction (RRR) of 22 % for
vascular events after stroke. The aim of this article is a summary and critical review
of all relevant studies and meta-analyses for secondary prevention of stroke and to
give a differentiated therapeutic recommendation. Methods: We performed a careful and extensive review of the present literature for PI in the
secondary prevention of stroke. Next to the classic meta-analyses such as the Antiplatelet
Trialists' analysis, the relevant single trials (e. g. CATS, TASS, ESPS 2, CURE, CAPRIE)
as well as meta-analyses and post hoc analyses of these studies are summarized and
interpreted. Therapeutic recommendations are in consistence with the recommendations
and guidelines of national (DGN), European (EUSI) and international (AHA/ASA) Groups/Associations.
Also, the present literature was searched for new information with regard to side
effects and pharmacological interactions and introduced into the review. Conclusions: ASA reduces the RR after TIA/stroke by ≈13 % and has the same efficacy with less
side effects in lower dosages (50 - 325 mg/Tag). Ticlopidine is a reserve drug due
to its unfavorable side effect profile (neutropenia, TTP). Clopidogrel is better than
ASA (RRR 8.7 %) for vascular patients in preventing another vascular event (stroke,
MI, vascular death). This effect is pronounced in patients at high risk for atherothrombotic
events such as previous MI, cardiac surgery, or diabetes. Dipyridamole+ASA is better
than ASA in patients with TIA/stroke (in indirect comparison also than Clopidogrel)
for the secondary prevention of recurrent stroke (RRR 23 %), but not for the prevention
of other vascular events. Therefore, Clopidogrel should be primarily given to patients
with a high vascular risk (one or more cardiovascular risk factors) or to patients
with ASA intolerance. Dipyridamole/ASA should be primarily given to TIA/stroke patients
with a lower cardiovascular comorbidity. Studies for the combination of Clopidogrel/ASA
(MATCH, CHARISMA) and for the comparison of both combinations (PRoFESS) are underway.
At present, the combination of clopidogrel and ASA for cerebrovascular prevention
should only be given within controlled studies or as an individual treatment with
an accordingly acquired informed consent.
Literatur
1 Wolf P A, Cobb J L, D'Agostino R B. Epidemiology of stroke. In: Barnett HJM, Mohr
JP, Stein BM, Yatsu FM (eds.). Stroke: Pathophysiology, diagnosis and management.
New York: Churchill Livingston 1992: 3-27
2
Johnston S C, Gress D R, Browner W S, Sidney S.
Short-term prognosis after emergency department diagnosis of tia.
Jama.
2000;
284
2901-2906
3
Grau A J, Weimar C, Buggle F, Heinrich A, Goertler M, Neumaier S, Glahn J, Brandt T,
Hacke W, Diener H C.
Risk factors, outcome, and treatment in subtypes of ischemic stroke: The german stroke
data bank.
Stroke.
2001;
32
2559-2566
4
Diener H C.
Stroke prevention - antiplatelet and antithrombolytic therapy.
Neurologic Clinics.
2000;
19
343-355
5
Antiplatelet Trialists's Collaboration .
Warfarin versus aspirin for prevention of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation -
collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy - i: Prevention
of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various
categories of patients. Stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation ii study.
Nouv Rev Fr Hematol.
1994;
36
213-228
6
Antithrombotic Trialist's Collaboration .
Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention
of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients.
Bmj.
2002;
324
71-86
7 Diener H C, Hacke W. Leitlinien für Diagnostik und Therapie in der Neurologie. Stuttgart:
Thieme Verlag 2002
8
Hacke W.
From cure to match: Adp receptor antagonists as the treatment of choice for high-risk
atherothrombotic patients.
Cerebrovasc Dis.
2002;
13 Suppl 1
22-26
9
Vickrey B G, Rector T S, Wickstrom S L, Guzy P M, Sloss E M, Gorelick P B, Garber S,
McCaffrey D F, Dake M D, Levin R A.
Occurrence of secondary ischemic events among persons with atherosclerotic vascular
disease.
Stroke.
2002;
33
901-906
10 Diener H C. Sekundärprävention zerebraler Durchblutungsstörungen. In: Hartmann
A, Heiss WD (eds.). Der Schlaganfall - Pathogenese, Klinik, Diagnostik und Therapie
akuter zerebrovaskulärer Erkrankungen. Darmstadt: Steinkopff 2001: 463-476
11
Albers G W, Amarenco P, Easton J D, Sacco R L, Teal P.
Antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke.
Chest.
2001;
119
300S-320S
12
The European Stroke Initiative .
Recommendations for stroke management.
Cerebrovasc Dis.
2000;
10
1-34
13
Hart R G, Palacio A, Pearce L A.
Atrial fibrillation, stroke, and acute antithrombotic therapy - analysis of randomized
clinical trials.
Stroke.
2002;
33
2722-2727
14
Hart R G, Pearce L A, Miller V T, Anderson D C, Rothrock J F, Albers G W, Nasco E.
Cardioembolic vs. Noncardioembolic strokes in atrial fibrillation: Frequency and effect
of antithrombotic agents in the stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation studies.
Cerebrovasc Dis.
2000;
10
39-43
15
The European Atrial Fibrillation Trial (EAFT) Study Group .
Secondary prevention in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation after transient ischaemic
attack or minor stroke.
Lancet.
1993;
342
1255-1262
16
The European Atrial Fibrillation Trial (EAFT) Study Group .
Optimal oral anticoagulant therapy in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation
and recent cerebral ischemia.
N Engl J Med.
1995;
333
5-10
17
Hart R G, Halperin J L, Pearce L A, Anderson D C, Kronmal R A, McBride R, Nasco E,
Sherman D G, Talbert R L, Marler J R.
Lessons from the stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation trials.
Ann Intern Med.
2003;
138
831-838
18
The Stroke Prevention In Reversible Ischemia Trial (SPIRIT) Study Group .
A randomized trial of anticoagulants versus aspirin after cerebral ischemia of presumed
arterial origin.
Ann Neurol.
1997;
42
857-865
19
Chimowitz M I, Kokkinos J, Strong J, Brown M B, Levine S R, Silliman S, Pessin M S,
Weichel E, Sila C A, Furlan A J. et al .
The warfarin-aspirin symptomatic intracranial disease study.
Neurology.
1995;
45
1488-1493
20
Mohr J P, Thompson J L, Lazar R M, Levin B, Sacco R L, Furie K L, Kistler J P, Albers G W,
Pettigrew L C, Adams Jr H P, Jackson C M, Pullicino P.
A comparison of warfarin and aspirin for the prevention of recurrent ischemic stroke.
N Engl J Med.
2001;
345
1444-1451
21
Esprit .
Oral anticoagulation in patients after cerebral ischemia of arterial origin and risk
of intracranial hemorrhage.
Stroke.
2003;
34
E45-46
22
Benesch C G, Chimowitz M I.
Best treatment for intracranial arterial stenosis? 50 years of uncertainty. The wasid
investigators.
Neurology.
2000;
55
465-466
23
Ansell J, Hirsh J, Dalen J, Bussey H, Anderson D, Poller L, Jacobson A, Deykin D,
Matchar D.
Managing oral anticoagulant therapy.
Chest.
2001;
119
22S-38S
24
Schellinger P, Orberk E, Hacke W.
Antithrombotic therapy following cerebral ischaemia.
Fortschr Neurol Psychiat.
1997;
65
425-434
25
Lee K Y, Heo J H, Lee S I, Yoon P H.
Rescue treatment with abciximab in acute ischemic stroke.
Neurology.
2001;
56
1585-1587
26
Junghans U, Seitz R J, Wittsack H J, Aulich A, Siebler M.
Treatment of acute basilar artery thrombosis with a combination of systemic alteplase
and tirofiban, a nonpeptide platelet glycoprotein iib/iiia inhibitor: Report of four
cases.
Radiology.
2001;
221
795-801
27
Junghans U, Seitz R J, Ritzl A, Wittsack H J, Fink G R, Freund H J, Siebler M.
Ischemic brain tissue salvaged from infarction by the gp iib/iiia platelet antagonist
tirofiban.
Neurology.
2002;
58
474-476
28
Memon M A, Blankenship J C, Wood G C, Frey C M, Menapace F J.
Incidence of intracranial hemorrhage complicating treatment with glycoprotein iib/iiia
receptor inhibitors: A pooled analysis of major clinical trials.
Am J Med.
2000;
109
213-217
29
The SYMPHONY Investigators .
Comparison of sibrafiban with aspirin for prevention of cardiovascular events after
acute coronary syndromes: A randomised trial. Sibrafiban versus aspirin to yield maximum
protection from ischemic heart events post-acute coronary syndromes.
Lancet.
2000;
355
337-345
30
Topol E J, Easton J D, Amarenco P, Califf R, Harrington R, Graffagnino C, Davis S,
Diener H C, Ferguson J, Fitzgerald D, Shuaib A, Koudstaal P J, Theroux P, Werf F
van de, Willerson J T, Chan R, Samuels R, Ilson B, Granett J.
Design of the blockade of the glycoprotein iib/iiia receptor to avoid vascular occlusion
(bravo) trial.
Am Heart J.
2000;
139
927-933
31
Craven L L.
Prevention of coronary and cerebral thrombosis.
Miss Val Med J.
1956;
78
213-215
32
Schrör K.
Antiplatelet drugs.
Drugs.
1995;
50
7-28
33
Derry S, Loke Y K.
Risk of gastrointestinal haemorrhage with long term use of aspirin: Meta-analysis.
Bmj.
2000;
321
1183-1187
34
Rajagopalan S. et al .
The stimulation of arachidonic acid metabolism in human platelets by hydrodynamic
stress.
Biochem Biophys Acta.
1988;
958
108-115
35
Chinese Acute Stroke Trial Collaborative Group .
Cast: Randomised placebo-controlled trial of early aspirin use in 20 000 patients
with acute ischaemic stroke.
Lancet.
1997;
349
1641-1649
36
International Stroke Trial Collaborative Group .
The international stroke trial (ist): A randomised trial of aspirin, subcutaneous
heparin, both or neither among 19 435 patients with acute ischaemic stroke.
Lancet.
1997;
349
1569-1581
37
Algra A, Gijn J van.
Cumulative meta-analysis of aspirin efficacy after cerebral ischaemia of arterial
origin.
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.
1999;
66
255
38
The SALT Collaborative Group .
Swedish aspirin low-dose trial (salt) of 75 mg aspirin as secondary prophylaxis after
cerebrovascular ischaemic events.
Lancet.
1991;
338
1345-1349
39
The UK-TIA Study Group .
The united kingdom transient ischaemic attack (uk-tia) aspirin trial: Final results.
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr.
1991;
54
1044-1054
40
Diener H C, Cunha L, Forbes C, Sivenius J, Smets P, Lowenthal A.
European stroke prevention study 2. Dipyridamole and acetylsalicylic acid in the secondary
prevention of stroke.
J Neurol Sci.
1996;
143
1-13
41
Patrono C, Roth G J.
Aspirin in ischemic cerebrovascular disease. How strong is the case for a different
dosing regimen?.
Stroke.
1996;
27
756-760
42
Algra A, Gijn J van.
Aspirin at any dose above 30 mg offers only modest protection after cerebral ischaemia.
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.
1996;
60
197-199
43
Buchanan M R, Brister S J.
Individual variation in the effects of asa on platelet function: Implications for
the use of asa clinically.
Can J Cardiol.
1995;
11
221-227
44
Gum P A, Kottke-Marchant K, Poggio E D, Gurm H, Welsh P A, Brooks L, Sapp S K, Topol E J.
Profile and prevalence of aspirin resistance in patients with cardiovascular disease.
Am J Cardiol.
2001;
88
230-235
45
The Dutch TIA Trial Study Group .
A comparison of two doses of aspirin (30 mg vs. 283 mg a day) in patients after a
transient ischemic attack or minor ischemic stroke.
N Engl J Med.
1991;
325
1261-1266
46
Sorensen H T, Mellemkjaer L, Blot W J, Nielsen G L, Steffensen F H, McLaughlin J K,
Olsen J H.
Risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding associated with use of low-dose aspirin.
Am J Gastroenterol.
2000;
95
2218-2224
47
Taylor D W, Barnett H J, Haynes R B, Ferguson G G, Sackett D L, Thorpe K E, Simard D,
Silver F L, Hachinski V, Clagett G P, Barnes R, Spence J D.
Low-dose and high-dose acetylsalicylic acid for patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy:
A randomised controlled trial. Asa and carotid endarterectomy (ace) trial collaborators.
Lancet.
1999;
353
2179-2184
48
Food and Drug Administration .
Internal analgesic, antipyretic, and antirheumatic drug products for over-the-counter
human use: Final rule for professional labeling of aspirin, buffered aspirin, and
aspirin in combination with antacid drug products.
Federal Register.
1998;
63
56 802-56 819, 66 015 - 66 017
49
Rotondo S. et al .
Ticlopidine does not reduce in vivo platelet thromboxane biosynthesis and metabolism
in diabetic patients.
Platelets.
1993;
56
147-150
50
Pengo V. et al .
Adenosine diphosphate (adp) induced alpha-granules release from platelets of native
whole blood. Is reduced by ticlopidine but not by aspirine or dypiramidole.
Thromb Haemost.
1986;
4
97-100
51
Hardisty R M. et al .
The action of ticlopidine on human platelets: Studies on aggregation, secretion, calcium
mobilization and membrane glycoproteins.
Thromb Haemost.
1990;
64
150-155
52
Ono S. et al .
Hemorrhagical effect of ticlopidine in the rat.
Thromb Res.
1983;
31
549-556
53
Gent M, Blakely J A, Easton J D, Ellis D J, Hachinski V C, Harbison J W, Panak E,
Roberts R S, Sicurella J, Turpie A G.
The Canadian American ticlopidine study (cats) in thromboembolic stroke.
Lancet.
1989;
1
1215-1220
54
Hass W K, Easton J D, Adams Jr H P, Pryse Phillips W, Molony B A, Anderson S, Kamm B.
A randomized trial comparing ticlopidine hydrochloride with aspirin for the prevention
of stroke in high-risk patients. Ticlopidine aspirin stroke study group.
N Engl J Med.
1989;
321
501-507
55
Murray J C, Kelly M A, Gorelick P B.
Ticlopidine: A new antiplatelet agent for the secondary prevention of stroke.
Stroke.
1994;
25
2337-2342
56
Chen D K, Kim J S, Sutton D M.
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with ticlopidine use: A report of 3
cases and review of the literature.
Arch Intern Med.
1999;
159
311-314
57
Bennett C L, Weinberg P D, Rozenberg-Ben-Dror K, Yarnold P R, Kwaan H C, Green D.
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with ticlopidine. A review of 60 cases.
Ann Intern Med.
1998;
128
541-544
58
Weisberg L A.
The efficacy and saftey of ticlopidine and aspirin in non-whites.
Neurology.
1993;
43
27-31
59
Gorelick P B, Richardson D, Kelly M, Ruland S, Hung E, Harris Y, Kittner S, Leurgans S.
Aspirin and ticlopidine for prevention of recurrent stroke in black patients: A randomized
trial.
Jama.
2003;
289
2947-2957
60
Neumann F J, Gawaz M, Dickfeld T, Wehinger A, Walter H, Blasini R, Schomig A.
Antiplatelet effect of ticlopidine after coronary stenting.
J Am Coll Cardiol.
1997;
29
1515-1519
61
Leon M B, Popma J J, Mintz G S, Pichard A D, Satler L F, Kent K M.
An overview of us coronary stent trials.
Semin Interv Cardiol.
1996;
1
247-254
62
Savi P, Bernat A, Dumas A, Ait Chek L, Herbert J M.
Effect of aspirin and clopidogrel on platelet-dependent tissue factor expression in
endothelial cells.
Thromb Res.
1994;
73
117-124
63
Herbert J M, Frehel D, Vallee E. et al .
Clopidogrel, a novel antiplatelet and antithrombotic agent.
Cardiovasc Drug Rev.
1993;
11
180-198
64
Herbert J M, Bernat A, Maffrand J P.
Importance of platelets in experimental venous thrombosis in the rat.
Blood.
1992;
80
2281-2286
65
CAPRIE Steering Committee .
A randomized trial of clopidogrel vs aspirin in patients at risk of ischemic events.
Lancet.
1996;
348
1329-1339
66 Moloney B A. An analysis of the side-effects of ticlopidine. In: Hass WK, Easton
JD (eds.). Ticlopidine, platelets and vascular disease. New York: Springer-Verlag
New York Inc 1993: 117-139
67
Bennett C L, Connors J M, Carwile J M, Moake J L, Bell W R, Tarantolo S R, McCarthy L J,
Sarode R, Hatfield A J, Feldman M D, Davidson C J, Tsai H M.
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with clopidogrel.
N Engl J Med.
2000;
342
1773-1777
68
Wie viel Fortschritt kostet: Beispiel Clopidogrel.
Cardio News.
2003;
5 (6)
16
69
Hankey G J.
Stroke: How large a public health problem, and how can the neurologist help?.
Arch Neurol.
1999;
56
748-754
70
Bhatt D L, Chew D P, Hirsch A T, Ringleb P A, Hacke W, Topol E J.
Superiority of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients with prior cardiac surgery.
Circulation.
2001;
103
363-368
71
Bhatt D L, Hirsch A T, Ringleb P A, Hacke W, Topol E J.
Reduction in the need for hospitalization for recurrent ischemic events and bleeding
with clopidogrel instead of aspirin. Caprie investigators.
Am Heart J.
2000;
140
67-73
72
Lau W C, Waskell L A, Watkins P B, Neer C J, Horowitz K, Hopp A S, Tait A R, Carville D G,
Guyer K E, Bates E R.
Atorvastatin reduces the ability of clopidogrel to inhibit platelet aggregation: A
new drug-drug interaction.
Circulation.
2003;
107
32-37
73
Igel M, Sudhop T, Bergmann K von.
Metabolism and drug interactions of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme a-reductase
inhibitors (statins).
Eur J Clin Pharmacol.
2001;
57
357-364
74
Byington R P, Davis B R, Plehn J F, White H D, Baker J, Cobbe S M, Shepherd J.
Reduction of stroke events with pravastatin: The prospective pravastatin pooling (ppp)
project.
Circulation.
2001;
103
387-392
75
Peterson J G, Topol E J, Sapp S K, Young J B, Lincoff A M, Lauer M S.
Evaluation of the effects of aspirin combined with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors
in patients with coronary artery disease.
Am J Med.
2000;
109
371-377
76
Bertrand M E, Legrand V, Boland J, Fleck E, Bonnier J, Emmanuelson H, Vrolix M, Missault L,
Chierchia S, Casaccia M, Niccoli L, Oto A, White C, Webb-Peploe M, Belle E van, McFadden E P.
Randomized multicenter comparison of conventional anticoagulation versus antiplatelet
therapy in unplanned and elective coronary stenting. The full anticoagulation versus
aspirin and ticlopidine (fantastic) study.
Circulation.
1998;
98
1597-1603
77
Herbert J M, Dol F, Bernat A, Falotico R, Lale A, Savi P.
The antiaggregating and antithrombotic activity of clopidogrel is potentiated by aspirin
in several experimental models in the rabbit.
Thromb Haemost.
1998;
80
512-518
78
Cadroy Y, Bossavy J P, Thalamas C, Sagnard L, Sakariassen K, Boneu B.
Early potent antithrombotic effect with combined aspirin and a loading dose of clopidogrel
on experimental arterial thrombogenesis in humans.
Circulation.
2000;
101
2823-2828
79
Moshfegh K, Redondo M, Julmy F, Wuillemin W A, Gebauer M U, Haeberli A, Meyer B J.
Antiplatelet effects of clopidogrel compared with aspirin after myocardial infarction:
Enhanced inhibitory effects of combination therapy.
J Am Coll Cardiol.
2000;
36
699-705
80
Bhatt D L, Bertrand M E, Berger P B, L'Allier P L, Moussa I, Moses J W, Dangas G,
Taniuchi M, Lasala J M, Holmes D R, Ellis S G, Topol E J.
Meta-analysis of randomized and registry comparisons of ticlopidine with clopidogrel
after stenting.
J Am Coll Cardiol.
2002;
39
9-14
81 Bertrand M. The classics-study: Clopidogrel aspirin stent international cooperative
study. American College of Cardiology, 48th Annual Scientific Session. 1999
82
Muller C, Buttner H J, Petersen J, Roskamm H.
A randomized comparison of clopidogrel and aspirin versus ticlopidine and aspirin
after the placement of coronary-artery stents.
Circulation.
2000;
101
590-593
83
Taniuchi M, Kurz H I, Lasala J M.
Randomized comparison of ticlopidine and clopidogrel after intracoronary stent implantation
in a broad patient population.
Circulation.
2001;
104
539-543
84
Mehta S R, Yusuf S.
The clopidogrel in unstable angina to prevent recurrent events (cure) trial programme;
rationale, design and baseline characteristics including a meta-analysis of the effects
of thienopyridines in vascular disease.
Eur Heart J.
2000;
21
2033-2041
85
The Clopidogrel in Unstable Angina to Prevent Recurrent Events Trial Investigators
.
Effects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes
without st-segment elevation.
N Engl J Med.
2001;
345
494-502
86
Steinhubl S R, Berger P B, Mann 3rd J T, Fry E T, DeLago A, Wilmer C, Topol E J.
Early and sustained dual oral antiplatelet therapy following percutaneous coronary
intervention: A randomized controlled trial.
Jama.
2002;
288
2411-2420
87
Easton J D.
Evidence with antiplatelet therapy and adp-receptor antagonists.
Cerebrovasc Dis.
2003;
16 Suppl 1
20-26
88
Patrono C, Coller B, Dalen J E, Fuster V, Gent M, Harker L A, Hirsh J, Roth G.
Platelet-active drugs: The relationships among dose, effectiveness, and side effects.
Chest.
1998;
114
470S-488S
89
Gresele P, Arnout J, Deckmyn H, Vermylen J.
Mechanism of the antiplatelet action of dipyridamole in whole blood: Modulation of
adenosine concentration and activity.
Thromb Haemost.
1986;
55
12-18
90
Strauer B E, Heidland U E, Vogt M, Schwartzkopff B, Heintzen M P.
Protection and „preconditioning” of the human heart during percutaneous transluminal
coronary angioplasty (ptca) by intracoronary dipyridamole administration.
Med-Klin.
1995;
90
125-130
91
Kirchmaier C M, Altorjay J, Bellinger O, Breddin H K.
Inhibition of induced thrombocyte aggregation in the presence of endothelial cells
by dipyridamole.
Vasa Suppl.
1991;
32
318-321
92
Wilterdink J L, Easton J D.
Dipyridamole plus aspirin in cerebrovascular disease.
Arch Neurol.
1999;
56
1087-1092
93
The ESPS Group .
The european stroke prevention study (esps). Principal end-points.
Lancet.
1987;
2
1351-1354
94
Diener H C, Darius H, Bertrand-Hardy J M, Humphreys M.
Cardiac safety in the european stroke prevention study 2 (esps2).
Int J Clin Pract.
2001;
55
162-163
95
Serebruany V L, Malinin A I, Eisert R M, Sane D C.
Risk of bleeding complications with antiplatelet agents: meta-analysis of 338.191
patients enrolled in 50 randomized controlled trials.
Am J Hematol.
2004;
75 (1)
40-47
96
Rosendaal F R, Algra A.
Dipyridamole and acetylsalicylic acid in the secondary prevention of stroke.
J Neurol Sci.
1997;
150
85-87
97
Antiplatelet Trialists' Collaboration .
Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy-i: Prevention
of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various
categories of patients.
Bmj.
1994;
308
81-106
98
The American-Canadian Co-Operative Study group .
Persantine aspirin trial in cerebral ischemia. Part ii: Endpoint results.
Stroke.
1985;
16
406-415
99
Bousser M G, Eschwege E, Haguenau M, Lefaucconnier J M, Thibult N, Touboul D, Touboul P J.
“aicla” controlled trial of aspirin and dipyridamole in the secondary prevention of
athero-thrombotic cerebral ischemia.
Stroke.
1983;
14
5-14
100
Guiraud-Chaumeil B, Rascol A, David J, Boneu B, Clanet M, Bierme R.
[prevention of recurrences of cerebral ischemic vascular accidents by platelet antiaggregants.
Results of a 3-year controlled therapeutic trial].
Rev Neurol (Paris).
1982;
138
367-385
101
Yusuf S.
From the hope to the ontarget and the transcend studies: Challenges in improving prognosis.
Am J Cardiol.
2002;
89
18A-25A; discussion 25A-26A
Priv.-Doz. Dr. med. Peter D. Schellinger
Neurologische Klinik des Universitätsklinikums Heidelberg
Im Neuenheimer Feld 400 - Kopfklinik
69120 Heidelberg
Email: Peter_Schellinger@med.uni-heidelberg.de