Keywords
Flat detector - interventional radiology - radiation dose reference card
Introduction
The number of interventional radiological procedures performed using angiographic
systems is increasing over the recent years due to its diagnostic and therapeutic
value. Complex radiological interventions performed using either flat detector (FD)
systems or image intensifier (II) systems can impart significant radiation dose to
patients when not adhered to standard clinical practices. Recently, FD systems with
improved image quality have found to be advantageous over the II systems.[[1],[2],[3],[4],[5]] The new FD systems with structured dose reporting, real-time skin dose mapping
are often expensive, however, these features are valuable to the interventional community.[[6]] The radiation dose protocols involving the choice of pulse rates (pps), frame rates
(fps), copper (Cu) filtration should be fine-tuned to patient size and type of interventions
without compromising image quality. Knowledge on appropriate exposure parameters for
different interventions would be valuable for operators using the FD systems.
Often, physicians and interventionists require prior knowledge in radiation dose from
complex interventions as it would be beneficial for patient management. Though measurement
of radiation dose from interventional procedures is a challenge due to varying imaging
parameters, dose area product (DAP) and air kinetic energy released per unit mass
(KERMA) denoted as Ka, r have been established as reliable real-time dose indicators
in fluoroscopy to assess stochastic and deterministic risks.[[7],[8]] In modern angiography suites, these parameters are recorded and displayed in the
control console monitors. However, effective dose (ED) values are not readily available
but can be calculated retrospectively using Monte Carlo simulation. The ED provides
an estimate of radiation risk to patients from radiological examinations and also
enables comparison of radiation risk between different procedures or procedures performed
using different modalities. Since ED is directly proportional to stochastic risk,
it can be converted to estimate relative or absolute examination risk.[[9]]
Estimation of fatal cancer risk to a specific population should account for age, gender
and demographic factors.[[10]] Furthermore, it is of greater concern to the paediatric community undergoing diagnostic
and therapeutic examinations since they have a longer life expectancy and hence higher
risk to radiation-induced cancer risk.[[11]] Though estimation of radiation-induced cancer risk from radiological examinations
is reported to be a flawed concept,[[12]] knowledge of risk could guide in the optimization process and enable the use of
radiation for diagnosis and treatment with utmost caution. Based on the large radiation-related
cancer risk estimate of 1 in 1000 corresponding to an ED of 10 mSv according to BEIR
VII report, patients’ desire to be informed on the radiation-related risk of cancer
incidence by interventional radiologist and referring physicians is vital.[[13],[14],[15]] Radiation safety training is part of the curriculum for radiologists. There could
be variable awareness regarding the radiation safety among the referring colleagues.
This study intends to evaluate optimized angiographic exposure parameters, radiation
dose and estimated risk and develop a patient radiation dose reference card for different
type of radiological interventions.
Materials and Methods
The study was approved by the institutional review board (IRB minute No. 8805, 2013).
Angiographic techniques and radiation doses were acquired from 16 types of radiological
interventions which spanned for a study period of 6 months. Interventional radiological
procedures were audited for paediatric patients aged 1–17 years and adults aged 18-79
years. The diagnostic procedures include cerebral angiography (n - 45), transjugular liver biopsy (TJLB) (n - 24), abdominal angiography (n - 6), spinal angiography (n - 7), peripheral venogram (n - 4). The therapeutic interventions included sclerotherapy (n - 81), cerebral embolization (n - 14), bronchial artery embolization (BAE) (n - 18), abdominal embolization (n - 17), transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) (n - 13), trans intraheptic porto systemic shunt (TIPSS) (n - 3), direct intrahepatic porto systemic shunt (DIPSS) (n - 3), inferior vena cava plasty (IVC) (n - 12), percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD) (n - 19), percutaneous nephrostomy (PCN) (n - 32), and peripheral embolization (n - 8). These procedures were performed by a team of experienced interventionists and
trainees.
Equipment
All radiological interventions were performed using Siemens Artis Zee biplane angiography
suite with FD system (Erlangen Germany). The 48 cm detector had pixel dimensions of
154 × 154 μm with detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of 74% at low spatial frequencies
and the 25 cm detector had pixel dimensions of 184 × 184 μm with a DQE of 75% at low
spatial frequencies. The angiography system was incorporated with dose protocols that
could be customized for neuro, body and peripheral imaging. The fluoroscopy pulsed
modes invariably selected were 7.5 pps for all procedures and 0.5 or 1 pps while positioning
the patient table or selecting the appropriate views. While 4 fps was the default
image acquisition frame rate used for most procedures, 7.5 fps was used for some high
flow angiography procedures and this was at the discretion of the interventionists.
The system incorporated an inherent filtration of 2.5 mm Al with five-level adaptive
copper pre-filtration for reduced skin dose. The Combined Application to Reduce Exposure
(CARE) filters (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9 mm Cu) were automatically selected during
the procedures depending on the patient anatomy and the region that was intervened.
The use of filters ranging from 0.2 to 0.9 mm Cu at 70 kV could result in 50% radiation
dose reduction. The source to image detector distance (SID) ranged from 94 to 124
cm and varied depending on the steepness of the angiographic projection.
Dosimetry
The fluoroscopic screening time (FT), DAP and reference air kerma (Ka, r) were obtained
from the structured dose reports produced by the angiography system. The PC based
Monte Carlo simulation software (PCXMC) was used to estimate ED from the DAP values.[[16]] ED for sclerotherapy and peripheral interventions involving upper limb were not
estimated due to unavailability of information in the PCXMC software. The dose descriptors
with ED and its comparison with equivalent period of exposure from background radiation
were used to prepare a radiation dose reference card for interventional radiology
procedures. The risk levels were assessed for Asian population for number of persons
exposed to 0.1 Gy for all types of cancer reported in BEIR VII report.[[15]]
Results
The angiographic techniques adopted for radiological interventions in adults and paediatrics
are shown in [[Table 1]]. During fluoroscopic screening, 7.5 pps and 0.6 mm Cu filter was invariably selected
in adults and paediatrics. The tube potentials ranged from 65 to 70 kV while the tube
current varied between 81 and 217 mA. The fluoroscopic mA was 14% and 23% higher in
thorax and abdomen interventions compared to cerebral interventions. In children,
though the tube potentials were similar to those in adults and the tube current varied
between 83.5 and 110.1 mA. The standardized low dose image acquisition technique combined
the use of site-specific protocol with 4fps and maximum filtration of 0.3 mm Cu. The
tube potentials for image acquisitions varied between 63 and 86 kVp and the tube current
modulated between 144 and 576 mA in children and adults. A maximum of 48 image acquisitions
were acquired during cerebral embolization and 43 during spinal angiography [[Table 1]].
Table 1
Exposure factors for radiological interventions from Siemens Artis Zee biplane angiography
system
|
Radiological interventions
|
Fluoroscopic screening
|
Image acquisitions
|
|
Mean kVp (range)
|
Mean mA (range)
|
fps (Cu mm)
|
Mean kVp (range)
|
Mean mA (range)
|
Mean No. of image acquisitions (range)
|
|
BAE: Bronchial artery embolization; TJLB: Transjugular liver biopsy; TACE: Transarterial
chemoembolization; IVC: Inferior vena cava; TIPSS: Trans intrahepatic portosystemic
shunt; DIPSS: Direct intrahepatic portosystemic shunt; PTBD: Percutaneous transhepatic
biliary drainage; PCN: Percutaneous nephrostomy; pps: Pulse per second; fps: Frames
per second; Cu: Copper filter; #DSA image acquisitions were not performed; *nterventions with sample size <10
|
|
Adults
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sclerotherapy#
|
68 (66-71)
|
97 (13-220)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
Cerebral angiography
|
66 (65-69)
|
93 (81-200)
|
4, 30 (0.1-0.3)
|
70 (69-75)
|
301 (283-361)
|
9.8 (4-20)
|
|
Cerebral embolization
|
67 (65-69)
|
124 (91-194)
|
4, 30 (0.1-0.3)
|
74 (71-84)
|
286 (273-307)
|
21.1 (8-48)
|
|
BAE
|
67 (66-68)
|
124 (94-189)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
67 (63-70)
|
378 (323-407)
|
13.9 (5-26)
|
|
Abdominal angiography*
|
66 (65-68)
|
124 (105-148)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
69 (67-70)
|
390 (288-576)
|
8.8 (3-14)
|
|
Abdominal embolization
|
67 (65-70)
|
136 (98-198)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
73 (66-86)
|
371 (272-493)
|
13.3 (3-23)
|
|
TJLB
|
65 (65-68)
|
127 (93-217)
|
4, 5, 7.5 (0.1-0.3)
|
74 (67-81)
|
331 (173-383)
|
1.2 (1-2)
|
|
TACE
|
67 (66-69)
|
149 (118-209)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
70 (66-74)
|
376 (280-571)
|
7.8 (3-16)
|
|
IVC Plasty
|
65 (65-70)
|
128 (98-209)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
72 (70-76)
|
396 (335-556)
|
8.8 (3-20)
|
|
TIPSS*
|
67 (65-69)
|
162 (140-183)
|
4, 7.5 (0.1-0.3)
|
75 (73-79)
|
342 (321-352)
|
10.6 (7-16)
|
|
DIPSS*
|
66 (65-68)
|
115 (97-134)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
70 (69-71)
|
382 (380-384)
|
11.3 (9-14)
|
|
PTBD
|
65 (65-67)
|
129 (89-210)
|
1,4 (0.1-0.3)
|
71 (66-83)
|
398 (363-428)
|
2.5 (1-8)
|
|
PCN
|
65 (65-67)
|
1 10 (92-225)
|
1, 4 (0.1-0.3)
|
72 (67-85)
|
332 (220-356)
|
1.2 (1-2)
|
|
Spinal angiography*
|
66 (65-68)
|
141 (92-203)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
72 (68-74)
|
453 (346-599)
|
28.4 (12-43)
|
|
Peripheral venogram *
|
66 (65-68)
|
112 (94-145)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
76 (66-97)
|
338 (232-399)
|
3.3 (2-5)
|
|
Peripheral embolization*
|
66 (65-68)
|
80 (19-200)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
65 (61-73)
|
199 (131-404)
|
8.6 (2-22)
|
|
Paediatrics
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sclerotherapy# (extremities)
|
67.2 (66-71)
|
50.3 (10.2-142.7)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
Sclerotherapy# (face, neck, and tongue)
|
67.4 (66-71)
|
105.6 (38.6-170)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
Cerebral angiography*
|
65.1 (65-66)
|
87.6 (83.5-95.9)
|
4 (0.1-0.3)
|
70 (69-71)
|
319.6 (292.8-381)
|
11.5 (6-18)
|
|
TJLB*
|
65
|
95.2 (95.1-97.6)
|
7.5 (0.3)
|
76
|
165.3 (144-177)
|
1.7 (1-2)
|
|
Abdominal Embolization*
|
69 (67.7-68)
|
95.3 (85.1-110.1)
|
4 (0.3)
|
67 (66-70)
|
420 (392-475)
|
12.6 (6-25)
|
|
Peripheral embolization*
|
66
|
84.5 (72.4-96.5)
|
4 (0.3)
|
66
|
151 (150-152)
|
13.5 (5-22)
|
[[Table 2]] shows the radiation dose as a result of the angiographic practices adopted in the
study. The diagnostic interventions recorded a maximum FT of 33.2 min during spinal
angiography while the therapeutic interventions recorded a maximum of 90.8 min during
TIPSS intervention. The highest mean DAP was 186.7 Gycm2 (44.0–377.5) during spinal angiography compared to all radiological interventions.
The Ka, r was maximum for cerebral embolization and spinal angiography as shown in
[[Table 2]]. The estimated ED was 3.3 and 6.8 mSv for cerebral angiography and cerebral embolization
respectively. The highest ED was estimated to be 59.4 mSv for spinal angiography intervention
followed by 28.6 mSv for TACE intervention. In children, the estimated ED was 12.7
mSv for abdominal embolization while it was 2.8 mSv for cerebral angiography. Radiation
dose reference card as shown in [[Table 2]], indicates a risk of low level (1 in 10,000 to 1 in 1000) for major fraction of
the radiological interventions. The increase in estimated ED for spinal angiography
and TACE indicated a moderate risk level (1 in 1000 to 1 in 500) in adults. Very low-risk
levels (1 in 100,000 to 1 in 10,000) were demonstrated for PCN and PTBD interventions
in adult and TJLB intervention in children.
Table 2
Radiation dose reference card for interventional radiological procedures
|
Radiological interventions
|
Mean FT in min (range)
|
Mean DAP in Gycm2 (range)
|
Mean Ka, r in Gy (range)
|
Mean ED (mSv)
|
Equivalent period of exposure to natural background radiation (3 mSv)
|
Level of risk
|
|
BAE: Bronchial artery embolization; TJLB: Transjugular liver biopsy; TACE: Transarterial
chemoembolization; IVC: Inferior vena cava; TIPSS: Trans intrahepatic portosystemic
shunt; DIPSS: Direct intrahepatic portosystemic shunt; PTBD: Percutaneous transhepatic
biliary drainage; PCN: Percutaneous nephrostomy; FT: Fluoroscopy time; DAP: Dose area
product; Ka: r: Reference air kerma; ED: Effective dose; #ED were not estimated for extremities in PCXMC; *Interventions with sample size <10
|
|
Adults
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sclerotherapy#
|
1.2 (0.2-2.4)
|
0.6 (0.02-5.2)
|
0.005 (0-0.03)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
Cerebral angiography
|
5.1 (0.8-23.9)
|
47.6 (18.2-100.3)
|
0.4 (0.1-0.7)
|
3.3
|
1 year
|
Low
|
|
Cerebral embolization
|
38.4 (17.3-83.4)
|
111.1 (57.4-161.7)
|
1.5 (0.5-2.8)
|
6.8
|
2 years
|
Low
|
|
BAE
|
27.2 (5.7-51.7)
|
26.8 (2.2-65.2)
|
0.3 (0.02-0.8)
|
10.6
|
4 years
|
Low
|
|
Abdominal angiography*
|
12.4 (0.8-27.8)
|
47.0 (31.9-57.9)
|
0.3 (0.1-0.4)
|
7.4
|
2 years
|
Low
|
|
Abdominal embolization
|
22.7 (4.2-52.9)
|
69.0 (5.3-154.6)
|
0.7 (0.07-1.4)
|
14.9
|
5 years
|
Low
|
|
TJLB
|
5.3 (1.7-10.8)
|
5.2 (0.82-11.3)
|
0.06 (0.006-0.1)
|
1.9
|
1 year
|
Low
|
|
TACE
|
20.3 (8.5-42.6)
|
43.7 (8.5-94.8)
|
0.5 (0.1-1.0)
|
28.6
|
10 years
|
Moderate
|
|
IVC Plasty
|
14.8 (1.8-31.9)
|
30.4 (9.4-54.6)
|
0.4 (0.1-0.8)
|
9.9
|
3 years
|
Low
|
|
TIPSS*
|
46.8 (23.9-90.8)
|
96.0 (40.1-176.4)
|
0.8 (0.3-1.5)
|
26.4
|
9 years
|
Low
|
|
DIPSS*
|
27.8 (19.7-37.0)
|
53.3 (40.4-63.7)
|
0.4 (0.4-0.5)
|
13.7
|
5 years
|
Low
|
|
PTBD
|
5.3 (0.3-20.6)
|
4.4 (0.2-23.0)
|
0.08 (0.002-0.005)
|
1.9
|
1 year
|
Very low
|
|
PCN
|
1.3 (0.1 -7.5)
|
2.3 (0.2-5.7)
|
0.03 (0.002-0.1)
|
0.3
|
0.1 year
|
Very low
|
|
Spinal angiography*
|
17.5 (10.4-33.2)
|
186.7 (44.0-377.5)
|
1.4 (0.5-2.7)
|
59.4
|
20 years
|
Moderate
|
|
Peripheral venogram#*
|
5.7 (0.4-13.9)
|
12.6 (5.3-25.3)
|
0.1 (0.06-0.3)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
Peripheral embolization#*
|
5.5 (0.5-10.6)
|
11.2 (0.1-52.3)
|
0.09 (0.0007-0.5)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
Paediatrics
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sclerotherapy# (extremities)
|
1.2 (0-2.3)
|
0.21 (0.03-1.8)
|
0.001 (0-0.008)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
Sclerotherapy# (face, neck, and tongue)
|
1.1 (0.5-2.4)
|
0.5 (0.11-2.1)
|
0.007 (0.002-0.02)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
Cerebral angiography*
|
3.4 (2.0-6.1)
|
29.9 (14.8-63.3)
|
0.2 (0.1-0.5)
|
2.8
|
1 year
|
Low
|
|
TJLB*
|
3.0 (1.6-5.2)
|
0.9 (0.5-1.9)
|
0.01 (0.007-0.03)
|
0.4
|
0.1 year
|
Very low
|
|
Abdominal embolization*
|
17.7 (10.0-25.6)
|
16.3 (4.9-35.1)
|
0.2 (0.08-0.6)
|
12.7
|
4 years
|
Low
|
|
Risk level
|
Negligible
|
Minimal
|
Very low
|
Low
|
Moderate
|
|
Estimated additional risk of developing fatal cancer
|
< 1 in 1,000,000
|
1 in 1,000,000 to 1 in 100,000
|
1 in 100,000 to 1 in 10,000
|
1 in 10,000 to 1 in 1000
|
1 in 1000 to 1 in 500
|
Discussion
Interventional radiological procedures whether diagnostic or therapeutic in nature
tend to impart high radiation dose to the patients depending upon complexities of
the procedure. Although several studies focus on the radiation dose imparted to patients,
it is also important to understand the angiographic exposure parameters which influence
the radiation dose. Angiographic exposure parameters such as kVp, mA, pulse rates,
frame rates, dose protocols, number of image acquisitions has a direct influence in
increasing or decreasing radiation dose. The selection of these parameters depends
on the type of equipment and operator experience.[[17],[18],[19],[20]] In the present study, interventionists adhered to safe radiation practices by adopting
low-dose customized protocol in Siemens Artis Zee biplane system as shown in [[Table 1]]. Our imaging protocol involved use of 7.5 pps and 0.6 mm Cu filtration during fluoroscopic
screening and 4fps and 0.3 mm Cu filtration during image acquisitions. Intervention
such as PCN required only 0.5 pps during fluoroscopy for the placement of the tube.
These customized parameters rendered appreciable image quality for adult and paediatric
patients of Indian origin. The use of lower pulse rate and increased filtration is
crucial during paediatric imaging in order to achieve lower radiation dose.[[21]] The optimized imaging practice involved constant tube potentials with varying tube
current as shown in [[Table 1]]. The degree of variation of tube current was attributed to varying patient size,
use of large focus, three–dimensional (3D) rotational angiography, choice of dose
protocols, road mapping technique and increased detector to patient distance.
In the study reported by Varghese et al., a doubling of tube current showed a doubling effect on the DAP values.[[22]] A maximum tube current of 599 mA and an exposure time of 51 ms were selected for
diagnostic spinal angiography owing to the selection of large focus compared to the
fine focus selected for other interventions. Similar findings have been reported in
II systems.[[23]] A maximum of 43 image acquisitions were performed using large and fine focus during
diagnostic spinal angiography, thus resulting in increased radiation dose.
In addition to two-dimensional (2D) image acquisitions, cerebral interventions involving
aneurysms required 3D imaging (30 fps) which selected tube potentials of 70-73 kVp
and tube current of 311-375 mA using a 42 cm field of view. In depth analysis showed
that the number of image frames (973.3 frames) acquired during cerebral embolization
(arterial venous malformation [AVM] were higher compared to aneurysmal interventions
(796.1 frames). These observations were similar to those reported by Hassan and Amelot,
where the number of image frames was 706 frames for AVM embolization and 300 frames
for aneurysmal interventions.[[24]] It was reported that the advantage of the rotational angiography in treating aneurysms
provide a better understanding of the vasculature without the need for increased number
of 2D image acquisitions compared to AVM interventions.[[25]] However, the number of 2D images acquired is at the discretion of the interventionists.
Experienced interventionists with knowledge on radiation safety acquired 18% lower
image frames during paediatric imaging compared to adults. In children, sclerotherapy
was commonly performed to extremities and other regions face, neck and tongue using
road maps instead of image acquisitions. Geryes et al. reported similar practice of using 7.5 pps for fluoroscopy with 1 or 2 fps for image
acquisition.[[26]]
Information on FT and radiation dose from radiological interventions would be valuable
for radiation safety purpose and as part of clinical reporting for future reference
or for designing any study involving ionizing radiation. In our study, a patient radiation
dose reference card was developed for 16 interventions based on the standardized angiographic
techniques [[Table 2]]. The reference card has information on mean DAP, Ka, r, ED, equivalent exposure
to background radiation and the level of risk for each procedure. These dose descriptors
are available in the angiographic suites and may be documented for radiation safety
purposes. However, prior knowledge of an estimate of FT and radiation dose would be
vital to plan any procedures, hence, a reference card would be a valuable tool.
Interventional radiology personnel may also record Ka, r dose rates (mGy/min) displayed
on the viewing monitor to calculate the trigger time reaching threshold doses of 2
or 5 Gy for probable tissue reactions from lengthy fluoroscopic time.[[27]] This method also enables the interventionist to plan and adopt radiation safe practices
prior to the intervention and initiate clinical follow-up in patients following lengthy
procedures.
The estimated mean ED using Monte Carlo simulations for the interventional procedures
studied were varying from 1.9 to 59.4 mSv as shown in [[Table 2]]. Using the mean DAP and ED from [[Table 2]], the conversion coefficients derived in the present study were 0.07 mSv/Gycm2, 0.39 mSv/Gycm2 and 0.33 mSv/Gycm2 for cerebral, thorax and abdominal/spinal interventions respectively and was found
to be similar to those reported in literature.[[28],[29]] Falco et al. reported conversion coefficients ranging from 0.07 to 0.25 mSv/Gycm2 with ED values of 5.4–66.9 mSv depending on the type of intervention.[[30]] In children, the conversion coefficients were 0.01 and 0.6 mSv/Gycm2 for cerebral and abdominal interventions respectively. Though there may be uncertainties
in conversion from DAP to ED, this method is useful for comparison of radiation dose
from different modalities and procedures.
The reference card [[Table 2]] includes risk levels described as moderate, low, very low, minimal and negligible
similar to the dose reference card developed by the American College of Radiology
(ACR) for few radiography and CT procedures.[[31],[32]] In this context, a reference patient is not an individual but a reference hermaphrodite
patient for whom risks have been assessed based on the average for a whole population.
Hence, the actual numerical value for risk of cancer incidence in an individual may
be far greater. Therefore, the best indicator for individual risk is to estimate mean
dose from all radiosensitive organs combined with appropriate age, sex and organ-specific
risk coefficient for radiation-induced stochastic effects according to ICRP.[[31],[33]] The risk in females was greater than males due to the additional tissue weighting
factor given for breast tissues. Children have 2–5 times higher risk of developing
cancer compared to adults exposed to the same magnitude of radiation dose.[[34]]
In our study, most of the radiology interventions involved low-risk levels, however,
interventions with higher ED values such as spinal angiography and TACE had moderate
risk levels. It should be noted that level of risk for some of the interventions may
vary among various centres due to sample sizes, operator experience, technique of
procedure and equipment. A similar study involving larger sample sizes from multiple
centres and different equipment will provide a more standardized dose reference.
Conclusion
This study highlights the use of low-dose protocols and develops a radiation dose
reference card for 16 radiological interventions performed using a FD-based angiographic
suite. The patient radiation dose reference card with simplified radiation dose information
would be valuable for explaining radiation-related information to patients by the
clinicians and the interventional community. The reference card also enables to identify
interventions involving lengthy FT and high radiation dose. This study limits to a
radiation dose reference card from a single tertiary referral centre and single angiography
equipment forming a local reference level. However, similar information from other
angiography systems can add value to such dose reference cards to maintain radiation
safety standards in medicine.
