Download PDF
Semin Reprod Med 2011; 29(4): 328-341
DOI: 10.1055/s-0031-1280918
© Thieme Medical Publishers

Cardiovascular Disease and Primary Ovarian Insufficiency

Melissa Wellons1
  • 1Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
03 October 2011 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the number-one killer of women. Women with primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) may be more burdened by cardiovascular disease, such as myocardial infarction and stroke, as compared with women with normal menopause. The increased burden may be mediated by a worsening of cardiovascular risk factors, such as lipids, corresponding with the loss of ovarian function. In contrast, the increased burden may be caused by factors that precede and potentially contribute to both CVD events and ovarian decline, such as X-chromosome abnormalities and smoking. Regardless of the cause, women with POI may serve as an important population to target for CVD screening and prevention strategies. These strategies should include the use of CVD risk stratification tools to identify women that may benefit from lifestyle modification and pharmacological therapy to prevent CVD. Sex steroid therapy for the sole purpose of CVD prevention in women with POI cannot be recommended, based on a lack of evidence.

KEYWORDS

POI - MI - stroke - heart disease - cardiovascular disease

REFERENCES

  • 1 Leading causes of death in females, United States, 2006. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/women/lcod/ Accessed July 27, 2010
    Google Scholar
  • 2 Amagai Y, Ishikawa S, Gotoh T, Kayaba K, Nakamura Y, Kajii E. Age at menopause and mortality in Japan: the Jichi Medical School Cohort Study.  J Epidemiol. 2006;  16 (4) 161-166
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Kannel W B, Hjortland M C, McNamara P M, Gordon T. Menopause and risk of cardiovascular disease: the Framingham study.  Ann Intern Med. 1976;  85 (4) 447-452
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Atsma F, Bartelink M L, Grobbee D E, van der Schouw Y T. Postmenopausal status and early menopause as independent risk factors for cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis.  Menopause. 2006;  13 (2) 265-279
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Luborsky J L, Meyer P, Sowers M F, Gold E B, Santoro N. Premature menopause in a multi-ethnic population study of the menopause transition.  Hum Reprod. 2003;  18 (1) 199-206
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Rebar R W, Connolly H V. Clinical features of young women with hypergonadotropic amenorrhea.  Fertil Steril. 1990;  53 (5) 804-810
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Murabito J M, Yang Q, Fox C, Wilson P W, Cupples L A. Heritability of age at natural menopause in the Framingham Heart Study.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;  90 (6) 3427-3430
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Nelson L M. Clinical practice. Primary ovarian insufficiency.  N Engl J Med. 2009;  360 (6) 606-614
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Gravholt C H. Epidemiological, endocrine and metabolic features in Turner syndrome.  Eur J Endocrinol. 2004;  151 (6) 657-687
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Bondy C A. Turner Syndrome Study Group . Care of girls and women with Turner syndrome: a guideline of the Turner Syndrome Study Group.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;  92 (1) 10-25
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Snowdon D A, Kane R L, Beeson W L et al. Is early natural menopause a biologic marker of health and aging?.  Am J Public Health. 1989;  79 (6) 709-714
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Snowdon D A. Early natural menopause and the duration of postmenopausal life. Findings from a mathematical model of life expectancy.  J Am Geriatr Soc. 1990;  38 (4) 402-408
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Cooper G S, Sandler D P. Age at natural menopause and mortality.  Ann Epidemiol. 1998;  8 (4) 229-235
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Cooper G S, Baird D D, Weinberg C R, Ephross S A, Sandler D P. Age at menopause and childbearing patterns in relation to mortality.  Am J Epidemiol. 2000;  151 (6) 620-623
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Jacobsen B K, Heuch I, Kvåle G. Age at natural menopause and all-cause mortality: a 37-year follow-up of 19,731 Norwegian women.  Am J Epidemiol. 2003;  157 (10) 923-929
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Jacobsen B K, Nilssen S, Heuch I, Kvåle G. Does age at natural menopause affect mortality from ischemic heart disease?.  J Clin Epidemiol. 1997;  50 (4) 475-479
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 van der Schouw Y T, van der Graaf Y, Steyerberg E W, Eijkemans J C, Banga J D. Age at menopause as a risk factor for cardiovascular mortality.  Lancet. 1996;  347 (9003) 714-718
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Jacobsen B K, Knutsen S F, Fraser G E. Age at natural menopause and total mortality and mortality from ischemic heart disease: the Adventist Health Study.  J Clin Epidemiol. 1999;  52 (4) 303-307
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Schoemaker M J, Swerdlow A J, Higgins C D, Wright A F, Jacobs P A. United Kingdom Clinical Cytogenetics Group . Mortality in women with Turner syndrome in Great Britain: a national cohort study.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;  93 (12) 4735-4742
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Gravholt C H, Juul S, Naeraa R W, Hansen J. Morbidity in Turner syndrome.  J Clin Epidemiol. 1998;  51 (2) 147-158
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Oliver M F. Ischaemic heart disease in young women.  BMJ. 1974;  4 (5939) 253-259
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Gordon T, Kannel W B, Hjortland M C, McNamara P M. Menopause and coronary heart disease. The Framingham Study.  Ann Intern Med. 1978;  89 (2) 157-161
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Rosenberg L, Hennekens C H, Rosner B, Belanger C, Rothman K J, Speizer F E. Early menopause and the risk of myocardial infarction.  Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1981;  139 (1) 47-51
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Kannel W B. Metabolic risk factors for coronary heart disease in women: perspective from the Framingham Study.  Am Heart J. 1987;  114 (2) 413-419
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Gold E B, Bromberger J, Crawford S et al. Factors associated with age at natural menopause in a multiethnic sample of midlife women.  Am J Epidemiol. 2001;  153 (9) 865-874
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Hu F B, Grodstein F, Hennekens C H et al. Age at natural menopause and risk of cardiovascular disease.  Arch Intern Med. 1999;  159 (10) 1061-1066
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Løkkegaard E, Jovanovic Z, Heitmann B L, Keiding N, Ottesen B, Pedersen A T. The association between early menopause and risk of ischaemic heart disease: influence of hormone therapy.  Maturitas. 2006;  53 (2) 226-233
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Jacobsen B K, Heuch I, Kvåle G. Age at natural menopause and stroke mortality: cohort study with 3561 stroke deaths during 37-year follow-up.  Stroke. 2004;  35 (7) 1548-1551
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Baba Y, Ishikawa S, Amagi Y et al.. Premature menopause is associated with increased risk of cerebral infarction in Japanese women.  Menopause. 2010;  17 506-510
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Lisabeth L D, Beiser A S, Brown D L, Murabito J M, Kelly-Hayes M, Wolf P A. Age at natural menopause and risk of ischemic stroke: the Framingham heart study.  Stroke. 2009;  40 (4) 1044-1049
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Kok H S, van Asselt K M, van der Schouw Y T et al. Heart disease risk determines menopausal age rather than the reverse.  J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;  47 (10) 1976-1983
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Bittner V. Menopause and cardiovascular risk cause or consequence?.  J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;  47 (10) 1984-1986
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Matthews K A, Crawford S L, Chae C U et al. Are changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors in midlife women due to chronological aging or to the menopausal transition?.  J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;  54 (25) 2366-2373
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Akahoshi M, Soda M, Nakashima E et al. Effects of age at menopause on serum cholesterol, body mass index, and blood pressure.  Atherosclerosis. 2001;  156 (1) 157-163
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Landin-Wilhelmsen K, Bryman I, Wilhelmsen L. Cardiac malformations and hypertension, but not metabolic risk factors, are common in Turner syndrome.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;  86 (9) 4166-4170
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Kaufman D W, Slone D, Rosenberg L, Miettinen O S, Shapiro S. Cigarette smoking and age at natural menopause.  Am J Public Health. 1980;  70 (4) 420-422
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Willett W, Stampfer M J, Bain C et al. Cigarette smoking, relative weight, and menopause.  Am J Epidemiol. 1983;  117 (6) 651-658
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Brambilla D J, McKinlay S M. A prospective study of factors affecting age at menopause.  J Clin Epidemiol. 1989;  42 (11) 1031-1039
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 van Noord P A, Dubas J S, Dorland M, Boersma H, te Velde E. Age at natural menopause in a population-based screening cohort: the role of menarche, fecundity, and lifestyle factors.  Fertil Steril. 1997;  68 (1) 95-102
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Cooper G S, Sandler D P, Bohlig M. Active and passive smoking and the occurrence of natural menopause.  Epidemiology. 1999;  10 (6) 771-773
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 McKinlay S M, Bifano N L, McKinlay J B. Smoking and age at menopause in women.  Ann Intern Med. 1985;  103 (3) 350-356
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Akahoshi M, Soda M, Nakashima E, Shimaoka K, Seto S, Yano K. Effects of menopause on trends of serum cholesterol, blood pressure, and body mass index.  Circulation. 1996;  94 (1) 61-66
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Hjortland M C, McNamara P M, Kannel W B. Some atherogenic concomitants of menopause: The Framingham Study.  Am J Epidemiol. 1976;  103 (3) 304-311
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 van Beresteijn E C, Korevaar J C, Huijbregts P C, Schouten E G, Burema J, Kok F J. Perimenopausal increase in serum cholesterol: a 10-year longitudinal study.  Am J Epidemiol. 1993;  137 (4) 383-392
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Bittner V. Perspectives on dyslipidemia and coronary heart disease in women.  J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;  46 (9) 1628-1635
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Do K A, Green A, Guthrie J R, Dudley E C, Burger H G, Dennerstein L. Longitudinal study of risk factors for coronary heart disease across the menopausal transition.  Am J Epidemiol. 2000;  151 (6) 584-593
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Matthews K A, Meilahn E, Kuller L H, Kelsey S F, Caggiula A W, Wing R R. Menopause and risk factors for coronary heart disease.  N Engl J Med. 1989;  321 (10) 641-646
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Matthews K A, Wing R R, Kuller L H, Meilahn E N, Plantinga P. Influence of the perimenopause on cardiovascular risk factors and symptoms of middle-aged healthy women.  Arch Intern Med. 1994;  154 (20) 2349-2355
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Chu M C, Rath K M, Huie J, Taylor H S. Elevated basal FSH in normal cycling women is associated with unfavourable lipid levels and increased cardiovascular risk.  Hum Reprod. 2003;  18 (8) 1570-1573
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Taylor H S. Genetic vs hormonal factors in lipid metabolism in women.  JAMA. 2004;  291 (4) 424-425 author reply 425
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Knauff E A, Westerveld H E, Goverde A J et al. Lipid profile of women with premature ovarian failure.  Menopause. 2008;  15 (5) 919-923
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Van P L, Bakalov V K, Bondy C A. Monosomy for the X-chromosome is associated with an atherogenic lipid profile.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;  91 (8) 2867-2870
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Cooley M, Bakalov V, Bondy C A. Lipid profiles in women with 45,X vs 46,XX primary ovarian failure.  JAMA. 2003;  290 (16) 2127-2128
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Di Angelantonio E, Sarwar N, Perry P Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration et al. Major lipids, apolipoproteins, and risk of vascular disease.  JAMA. 2009;  302 (18) 1993-2000
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Cui Y, Blumenthal R S, Flaws J A et al. Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level as a predictor of cardiovascular disease mortality.  Arch Intern Med. 2001;  161 (11) 1413-1419
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Bass K M, Newschaffer C J, Klag M J, Bush T L. Plasma lipoprotein levels as predictors of cardiovascular death in women.  Arch Intern Med. 1993;  153 (19) 2209-2216
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Stampfer M J, Colditz G A, Willett W C et al. Postmenopausal estrogen therapy and cardiovascular disease. Ten-year follow-up from the nurses' health study.  N Engl J Med. 1991;  325 (11) 756-762
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Hsia J, Criqui M H, Herrington D M Women's Health Initiative Research Group et al. Conjugated equine estrogens and peripheral arterial disease risk: the Women's Health Initiative.  Am Heart J. 2006;  152 (1) 170-176
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Rossouw J E, Cushman M, Greenland P et al. Inflammatory, lipid, thrombotic, and genetic markers of coronary heart disease risk in the women's health initiative trials of hormone therapy.  Arch Intern Med. 2008;  168 (20) 2245-2253
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Anderson G L, Limacher M, Assaf A R Women's Health Initiative Steering Committee et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial.  JAMA. 2004;  291 (14) 1701-1712
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Rossouw J E, Anderson G L, Prentice R L Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial.  JAMA. 2002;  288 (3) 321-333
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Wassertheil-Smoller S, Hendrix S L, Limacher M WHI Investigators et al. Effect of estrogen plus progestin on stroke in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative: a randomized trial.  JAMA. 2003;  289 (20) 2673-2684
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 López-López R, Huerta R, Malacara J M. Age at menopause in women with type 2 diabetes mellitus.  Menopause. 1999;  6 (2) 174-178
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Zawadzki J, Dunaif A. Diagnostic criteria for polycystic ovary syndrome: towards a rational approach. In: Dunaif A, Givens J, Haseltine F, Merriam G, eds. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Boston, MA: Blackwell Scientific; 1992: 377-384
    Google Scholar
  • 65 Rotterdam ESHRE/ASRM -Sponsored PCOS Consensus Workshop Group . Revised 2003 consensus on diagnostic criteria and long-term health risks related to polycystic ovary syndrome.  Fertil Steril. 2004;  81 (1) 19-25
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Legro R S. A 27-year-old woman with a diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome.  JAMA. 2007;  297 (5) 509-519
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Rebar R, Judd H L, Yen S S, Rakoff J, Vandenberg G, Naftolin F. Characterization of the inappropriate gonadotropin secretion in polycystic ovary syndrome.  J Clin Invest. 1976;  57 (5) 1320-1329
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Hudecova M, Holte J, Olovsson M, Sundström Poromaa I. Long-term follow-up of patients with polycystic ovary syndrome: reproductive outcome and ovarian reserve.  Hum Reprod. 2009;  24 (5) 1176-1183
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Carr M C. The emergence of the metabolic syndrome with menopause.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;  88 (6) 2404-2411
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Kim T J, Anasti J N, Flack M R, Kimzey L M, Defensor R A, Nelson L M. Routine endocrine screening for patients with karyotypically normal spontaneous premature ovarian failure.  Obstet Gynecol. 1997;  89 (5 Pt 1) 777-779
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Harris M I, Flegal K M, Cowie C C et al.. Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and impaired glucose tolerance in U.S. adults. The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994.  Diabetes Care. 1998;  21 518-524
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Bakalov V K, Cheng C, Zhou J, Bondy C A. X-chromosome gene dosage and the risk of diabetes in Turner syndrome.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;  94 (9) 3289-3296
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Vaccarino V, Horwitz R I, Meehan T P, Petrillo M K, Radford M J, Krumholz H M. Sex differences in mortality after myocardial infarction: evidence for a sex-age interaction.  Arch Intern Med. 1998;  158 (18) 2054-2062
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Vaccarino V, Parsons L, Every N R, Barron H V, Krumholz H M. Sex-based differences in early mortality after myocardial infarction. National Registry of Myocardial Infarction 2 Participants.  N Engl J Med. 1999;  341 (4) 217-225
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Vaccarino V, Krumholz H M, Yarzebski J, Gore J M, Goldberg R J. Sex differences in 2-year mortality after hospital discharge for myocardial infarction.  Ann Intern Med. 2001;  134 (3) 173-181
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 MacIntyre K, Stewart S, Capewell S et al. Gender and survival: a population-based study of 201,114 men and women following a first acute myocardial infarction.  J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;  38 (3) 729-735
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Vaccarino V, Parsons L, Peterson E D, Rogers W J, Kiefe C I, Canto J. Sex differences in mortality after acute myocardial infarction: changes from 1994 to 2006.  Arch Intern Med. 2009;  169 (19) 1767-1774
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults . Executive Summary of The Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III).  JAMA. 2001;  285 (19) 2486-2497
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Grundy S M, Cleeman J I, Merz C N Coordinating Committee of the National Cholesterol Education Program et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III Guidelines.  J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;  44 (3) 720-732
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Summary of the second report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel II).  JAMA. 1993;  269 (23) 3015-3023
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Ridker P M, Buring J E, Rifai N, Cook N R. Development and validation of improved algorithms for the assessment of global cardiovascular risk in women: the Reynolds Risk Score.  JAMA. 2007;  297 (6) 611-619
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Mosca L. Guidelines for prevention of cardiovascular disease in women: a summary of recommendations.  Prev Cardiol. 2007;  10 (Suppl 4) 19-25
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Baigent C, Keech A, Kearney P M Cholesterol Treatment Trialists' (CTT) Collaborators et al. Efficacy and safety of cholesterol-lowering treatment: prospective meta-analysis of data from 90,056 participants in 14 randomised trials of statins.  Lancet. 2005;  366 (9493) 1267-1278
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Kearney P M, Blackwell L, Collins R Cholesterol Treatment Trialists' (CTT) Collaborators et al. Efficacy of cholesterol-lowering therapy in 18,686 people with diabetes in 14 randomised trials of statins: a meta-analysis.  Lancet. 2008;  371 (9607) 117-125
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Grundy S M. Should women be offered cholesterol lowering drugs to prevent cardiovascular disease? Yes.  BMJ. 2007;  334 (7601) 982
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Kendrick M. Should women be offered cholesterol lowering drugs to prevent cardiovascular disease? No.  BMJ. 2007;  334 (7601) 983
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Abramson J, Wright J M. Are lipid-lowering guidelines evidence-based?.  Lancet. 2007;  369 (9557) 168-169
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Walsh J M, Pignone M. Drug treatment of hyperlipidemia in women.  JAMA. 2004;  291 (18) 2243-2252
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Kenis I, Tartakover-Matalon S, Cherepnin N et al. Simvastatin has deleterious effects on human first trimester placental explants.  Hum Reprod. 2005;  20 (10) 2866-2872
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Edison R J, Muenke M. Central nervous system and limb anomalies in case reports of first-trimester statin exposure.  N Engl J Med. 2004;  350 (15) 1579-1582
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 North American Menopause Society . Estrogen and progestogen use in postmenopausal women: 2010 position statement of the North American Menopause Society.  Menopause. 2010;  17 (2) 242-255
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Santen R J, Allred D C, Ardoin S P Endocrine Society et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy: an Endocrine Society scientific statement.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;  95 (7, Suppl 1) s1-s66
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Langrish J P, Mills N L, Bath L E et al. Cardiovascular effects of physiological and standard sex steroid replacement regimens in premature ovarian failure.  Hypertension. 2009;  53 (5) 805-811
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Krattenmacher R. Drospirenone: pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of a unique progestogen.  Contraception. 2000;  62 (1) 29-38
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Benetti-Pinto C L, Bedone A J, Magna L A. Evaluation of serum androgen levels in women with premature ovarian failure.  Fertil Steril. 2005;  83 (2) 508-510
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Kalantaridou S N, Calis K A, Vanderhoof V H et al. Testosterone deficiency in young women with 46,XX spontaneous premature ovarian failure.  Fertil Steril. 2006;  86 (5) 1475-1482
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Liu P Y, Death A K, Handelsman D J. Androgens and cardiovascular disease.  Endocr Rev. 2003;  24 (3) 313-340
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Flöter A, Nathorst-Böös J, Carlström K, von Schoultz B. Serum lipids in oophorectomized women during estrogen and testosterone replacement therapy.  Maturitas. 2004;  47 (2) 123-129
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Zang H, Carlström K, Arner P, Hirschberg A L. Effects of treatment with testosterone alone or in combination with estrogen on insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women.  Fertil Steril. 2006;  86 (1) 136-144
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Diamond M P, Grainger D, Diamond M C, Sherwin R S, Defronzo R A. Effects of methyltestosterone on insulin secretion and sensitivity in women.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;  83 (12) 4420-4425
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Kalantaridou S N, Calis K A, Mazer N A, Godoy H, Nelson L M. A pilot study of an investigational testosterone transdermal patch system in young women with spontaneous premature ovarian failure.  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;  90 (12) 6549-6552
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Chobanian A V, Bakris G L, Black H R National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report.  JAMA. 2003;  289 (19) 2560-2572
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Bondy C, Bakalov V K, Lange E D, Ceniceros I. Deficient medical care for adults with the Turner syndrome.  Ann Intern Med. 2006;  145 (11) 866-867
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Gravholt C H. Medical problems of adult Turner's syndrome.  Horm Res. 2001;  56 (Suppl 1) 44-50
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Wiggins D A, Main E. Outcomes of pregnancies achieved by donor egg in vitro fertilization—a comparison with standard in vitro fertilization pregnancies.  Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;  192 (6) 2002-2006 discussion 2006-2008
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Söderström-Anttila V, Tiitinen A, Foudila T, Hovatta O. Obstetric and perinatal outcome after oocyte donation: comparison with in-vitro fertilization pregnancies.  Hum Reprod. 1998;  13 (2) 483-490
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Pados G, Camus M, Van Steirteghem A, Bonduelle M, Devroey P. The evolution and outcome of pregnancies from oocyte donation.  Hum Reprod. 1994;  9 (3) 538-542
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Practice Committee of American Society for Reproductive Medicine . Increased maternal cardiovascular mortality associated with pregnancy in women with Turner syndrome.  Fertil Steril. 2008;  90 (5, Suppl) S185-S186
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Hiratzka L F, Bakris G L, Beckman J A American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines et al. 2010 ACCF/AHA/AATS/ACR/ASA/SCA/SCAI/SIR/STS/SVM Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of patients with thoracic aortic disease. A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American College of Radiology, American Stroke Association, Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Interventional Radiology, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, and Society for Vascular Medicine.  J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;  55 (14) e27-e129
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health .Expert Panel on Detection Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). Risk Assessment Tool for Estimating Your 10-year Risk of Having a Heart Attack. Available at: http://hp2010.nhlbihin.net/atpiii/calculator.asp Accessed November 3, 2010
    Google Scholar

Melissa WellonsM.D. M.H.S. 

Assistant Professor, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham 619 19th Street South

Room 10390 Women and Infants Center, Birmingham, AL 35249-7333

Email: mwellons@uab.edu

      >