Exercise to Lower Postprandial Lipemia: Why, When, What and How

Abstract

We review recent findings on the ability of exercise to lower postprandial lipemia (PPL). Specifically, we answer why exercise is important in lowering PPL, when it is most effective to exercise to achieve this, what the preferred exercise is and how exercise reduces PPL. Most findings confirm the power of exercise to lower PPL, which is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Exercise is most effective when performed on the day preceding a high- or moderate-fat meal. This effect lasts up to approximately two days; therefore, one should exercise frequently to maintain this benefit. However, the time of exercise relative to a meal is not that important in real-life conditions, since one consumes several meals during the day; thus, an exercise bout will inevitably exert its lowering effect on PPL in one or more of the subsequent meals. Although moderate-intensity continuous exercise, high-intensity intermittent exercise, resistance exercise and accumulation of short bouts of exercise throughout the day are all effective in lowering PPL, submaximal, high-volume interval exercise seems to be superior, provided it is tolerable. Finally, exercise reduces PPL by both lowering the rate of appearance and increasing the clearance of triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins from the circulation.

Key words

cardiovascular disease - meal - physical activity - triacylglycerol

Publication History

Received: 15 December 2021

Accepted: 28 March 2022

Accepted Manuscript online:
28 March 2022

Article published online:
06 May 2022

• References

• 1 Zhao Y, Liu L, Yang S. et al. Mechanisms of atherosclerosis induced by postprandial lipemia. Front Cardiovasc Med 2021; 8: 636947 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2021.636947.
• 2 Plaisance EP, Fisher G. Exercise and dietary-mediated reductions in postprandial lipemia. J Nutr Metab 2014; 2014: 902065 DOI: 10.1155/2014/902065.
• 3 D. Kolovou G, P. Mikhailidis D, G. Nordestgaard B. et al. Definition of postprandial lipaemia. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2011; 9: 292-301 DOI: 10.2174/157016111795495611.
• 4 Bozzetto L, Della Pepa G, Vetrani C. et al. Dietary impact on postprandial lipemia. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11: 337 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.00337.
• 5 Gill JMR, Hardman AE. Exercise and postprandial lipid metabolism: An update on potential mechanisms and interactions with high-carbohydrate diets (review). J Nutr Biochem 2003; 14: 122-132 DOI: 10.1016/S0955-2863(02)00275-9.
• 6 Petitt DS, Cureton KJ. Effects of prior exercise on postprandial lipemia: A quantitative review. Metabolism 2003; 52: 418-424 DOI: 10.1053/meta.2003.50071.
• 7 Peddie MC, Rehrer NJ, Perry TL. Physical activity and postprandial lipidemia: Are energy expenditure and lipoprotein lipase activity the real modulators of the positive effect?. Prog Lipid Res 2012; 51: 11-22 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2011.11.002.
• 8 Maraki MI, Sidossis LS. The latest on the effect of prior exercise on postprandial lipaemia. Sports Med 2013; 43: 463-481 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-013-0046-9.
• 9 Miyashita M, Burns SF, Stensel DJ. An update on accumulating exercise and postprandial lipaemia: Translating theory into practice. J Prev Med Public Heal 2013; 46: 3-11 DOI: 10.3961/jpmph.2013.46.S.S3.
• 10 Freese EC, Gist NH, Cureton KJ. Effect of prior exercise on postprandial lipemia: An updated quantitative review. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014; 116: 67-75 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00623.2013.
• 11 Burns SF, Miyashita M, Stensel DJ. High-intensity interval exercise and postprandial triacylglycerol. Sports Med 2015; 45: 957-968 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-015-0327-6.
• 12 Teeman CS, Kurti SP, Cull BJ. et al. Postprandial lipemic and inflammatory responses to high-fat meals: A review of the roles of acute and chronic exercise. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2016; 13: 80 DOI: 10.1186/s12986-016-0142-6.
• 13 Pappas C, Kandaraki EA, Tsirona S. et al. Postprandial dysmetabolism: Too early or too late?. Hormones (Athens) 2016; 15: 321-344 DOI: 10.14310/horm.2002.1697.
• 14 Macedo RCO, Boeno FP, Farinha JB. et al. Acute and residual effects of aerobic exercise on fructose-induced postprandial lipemia on lean male subjects. Eur J Nutr 2019; 58: 2293-2303 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-018-1780-4.
• 15 Nordestgaard BG, Benn M, Schnohr P. et al. Nonfasting triglycerides and risk of myocardial infarction, ischemic heart disease, and death in men and women. J Am Med Assoc 2007; 298: 299-308 DOI: 10.1001/jama.298.3.299.
• 16 Stensvold I, Tverdal A, Urdal P. et al. Non-fasting serum triglyceride concentration and mortality from coronary heart disease and any cause in middle aged Norwegian women. Br Med J 1993; 307: 1318-1322 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.307.6915.1318.
• 17 Varbo A, Benn M, Tybjærg-Hansen A. et al. Remnant cholesterol as a causal risk factor for ischemic heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 61: 427-436 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2012.08.1026.
• 18 Kolovou G, P. Mikhailidis D, Kovar J. et al. Assessment and clinical relevance of non-fasting and postprandial triglycerides: an expert panel statement. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2011; 9: 258-270 DOI: 10.2174/1570211213146321611.
• 19 Nordestgaard BG, Langsted A, Mora S. et al. Fasting is not routinely required for determination of a lipid profile: Clinical and laboratory implications including flagging at desirable concentration cut-points – A joint consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society and European Fede. Eur Heart J 2016; 37: 1944-1958 DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehw152.
• 20 Sciarrillo CM, Koemel NA, Keirns BH. et al. Who would benefit most from postprandial lipid screening?. Clin Nutr 2021; 40: 4762-4771 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2021.04.022.
• 21 Chiu CH, Burns SF, Yang TJ. et al. Energy replacement using glucose does not increase postprandial lipemia after moderate intensity exercise. Lipids Health Dis 2014; 13: 177 DOI: 10.1186/1476-511X-13-177.
• 22 Chu A, Boutcher YN, Boutcher SH. Effect of acute interval sprinting exercise on postprandial lipemia of sedentary young men. J Exerc Nutrition Biochem 2016; 20: 9-14 DOI: 10.20463/jenb.2016.03.20.1.7.
• 23 Yang TJ, Wu CL, Chiu CH. High-intensity intermittent exercise increases fat oxidation rate and reduces postprandial triglyceride concentrations. Nutrients 2018; 10: 492 DOI: 10.3390/nu10040492.
• 24 Kaviani M, Chilibeck PD, Yee P. et al. The effect of consuming low-versus high-glycemic index meals after exercise on postprandial blood lipid response following a next-day high-fat meal. Nutr Diabetes 2016; 6: e216 DOI: 10.1038/nutd.2016.26.
• 25 Ferreira AP, Ferreira CB, Brito CJ. et al. The effect of aerobic exercise intensity on attenuation of postprandial lipemia is dependent on apolipoprotein E genotype. Atherosclerosis 2013; 229: 139-144 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.03.027.
• 26 Kashiwabara K, Kidokoro T, Yanaoka T. et al. Different patterns of walking and postprandial triglycerides in older women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2018; 50: 79-87 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001413.
• 27 Trombold JR, Christmas KM, Machin DR. et al. Postexercise macronutrient intake and subsequent postprandial triglyceride metabolism. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2014; 46: 2099-2106 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000333.
• 28 Alotaibi TF, Thackray AE, Roberts MJ. et al. Acute running and coronary heart disease risk markers in male cigarette smokers and nonsmokers: a randomized crossover trial. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53: 1021-1032 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002560.
• 29 Arjunan SP, Deighton K, Bishop NC. et al. The effect of prior walking on coronary heart disease risk markers in South Asian and European men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 115: 2641-2651 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-015-3269-7.
• 30 Chiu CH, Chen CH, Wu MH. et al. Nonexercise activity thermogenesis-induced energy shortage improves postprandial lipemia and fat oxidation. Life (Basel) 2020; 10: 166 DOI: 10.3390/life10090166.
• 31 Crawford CK, Akins JD, Vardarli E. et al. Prolonged standing reduces fasting plasma triglyceride but does not influence postprandial metabolism compared to prolonged sitting. PLoS One 2020; 15: e0228297 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228297.
• 32 Farinha JB, MacEdo CEO, Rodrigues-Krause J. et al. Effects of two combined exercise designs associated with high-fat meal consumption on postprandial lipemia, insulinemia, and oxidative stress. J Strength Cond Res 2018; 32: 1422-1430 DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001984.
• 33 Fuller KNZ, Summers CM, Valentine RJ. Effect of a single bout of aerobic exercise on high-fat meal-induced inflammation. Metabolism 2017; 71: 144-152 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2017.03.001.
• 34 Gabriel BM, Pugh J, Pruneta-Deloche V. et al. The effect of high intensity interval exercise on postprandial triacylglycerol and leukocyte activation – Monitored for 48h post exercise. PLoS One 2013; 8: e82669 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082669.
• 35 Jenkins NDM, Banks NF, Rogers EM. et al. Resistance exercise attenuates postprandial metabolic responses to a high-fat meal similarly in younger and older men. Nutr Res 2020; 83: 73-85 DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2020.08.012.
• 36 Kurti SP, Frick H, Wisseman WS. et al. Acute exercise improves glucose and TAG metabolism in young and older adults following high-fat, high-carbohydrate meal intake. Br J Nutr 2022; 127: 687-695 DOI: 10.1017/S0007114521002208.
• 37 Lee CL, Kuo YH, Cheng CF. Acute high-intensity interval cycling improves postprandial lipid metabolism. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2018; 50: 1687-1696 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001613.
• 38 Lopes Krüger R, Costa Teixeira B, Boufleur Farinha J. et al. Effect of exercise intensity on postprandial lipemia, markers of oxidative stress, and endothelial function after a high-fat meal. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2016; 41: 1278-1284 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2016-0262.
• 39 McAllister MJ, Steadman KS, Renteria LI. et al. Acute resistance exercise reduces postprandial lipemia and oxidative stress in resistance-trained men. J Strength Cond Res 2020; Online ahead of print DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003831.
• 40 Menon JE, Stensel DJ, Tolfrey K. et al. Increased meal frequency with exercise mitigates postprandial triacylglycerol. J Phys Act Health 2019; 16: 589-594 DOI: 10.1123/jpah.2018-0696.
• 41 Paul DJ, Bangsbo J, Cherif A. et al. The effects of a single versus three consecutive sessions of football training on postprandial lipemia: a randomized, controlled trial in healthy, recreationally active males. Sports Med Open 2019; 5: 38 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-019-0212-1.
• 42 Polley KR, Oswell NJ, Pegg RB. et al. Tart cherry consumption with or without prior exercise increases antioxidant capacity and decreases triglyceride levels following a high-fat meal. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2019; 44: 1209-1218 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2018-0535.
• 43 Wilburn JR, Bourquin J, Wysong A. et al. Resistance exercise attenuates high-fructose, high-fat-induced postprandial lipemia. Nutr Metab Insights 2015; 8: 29–35 DOI: 10.4137/nmi.s32106.
• 44 Wolfe AS, Burton HM, Vardarli E. et al. Hourly 4-s sprints prevent impairment of postprandial fat metabolism from inactivity. med sci sports exerc 2020; 52: 2262-2269 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002367.
• 45 Tan M, Fat RCM, Boutcher YN. et al. Effect of high-intensity intermittent exercise on postprandial plasma triacylglycerol in sedentary young women. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2014; 24: 110-118 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2013-0094.
• 46 Ghafouri K, Cooney J, Bedford DK. et al. Moderate exercise increases affinity of large very low-density lipoproteins for hydrolysis by lipoprotein lipase. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100: 2205-2213 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2015-1196.
• 47 O’Doherty AF, Jones HS, Sathyapalan T. et al. The effects of acute interval exercise and strawberry intake on postprandial lipemia. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2017; 49: 2315-2323 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001341.
• 48 Sedgwick MJ, Morris JG, Nevill ME. et al. Effect of repeated sprints on postprandial endothelial function and triacylglycerol concentrations in adolescent boys. J Sports Sci 2015; 33: 806-816 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2014.964749.
• 49 Smallcombe JW, Barrett LA, Morris JG. et al. Small-sided soccer in school reduces postprandial lipemia in adolescent boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2018; 50: 2351-2359 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001702.
• 50 Thackray AE, Barrett LA, Tolfrey K. Acute effects of energy deficit induced by moderate-intensity exercise or energy-intake restriction on postprandial lipemia in healthy girls. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2015; 27: 192-202 DOI: 10.1123/pes.2014-0096.
• 51 Thackray AE, Barrett LA, Tolfrey K. High-intensity running and energy restriction reduce postprandial lipemia in girls. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2016; 48: 402-411 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000788.
• 52 Thackray AE, Barrett LA, Tolfrey K. Sex differences in postprandial lipaemia after acute high-intensity interval running in young people. J Sports Sci 2018; 36: 1673-1681 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1409610.
• 53 Tolfrey K, Engstrom A, Murphy C. et al. Exercise energy expenditure and postprandial lipemia in girls. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2014; 46: 239-246 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182a59ab1.
• 54 Homer AR, Fenemor SP, Perry TL. et al. Regular activity breaks combined with physical activity improve postprandial plasma triglyceride, nonesterified fatty acid, and insulin responses in healthy, normal weight adults: A randomized crossover trial. J Clin Lipidol 2017; 11: 1268-1279.e1 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacl.2017.06.007.
• 55 Rowe JR, Biggerstaff KD, Ben-Ezra V. et al. Prior exercise does not reduce postprandial lipemia following a mixed glucose meal when compared with a mixed fructose meal. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2016; 26: 435-444 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2015-0274.
• 56 Miyashita M, Takahashi M, Burns S. Increased participation in weekend physical activity reduces postprandial lipemia in postmenopausal women. Int J Sports Med 2014; 35: 1059-1064 DOI: 10.1055/s-0034-1372641.
• 57 Shah M, Gloeckner A, Bailey S. et al. Effect of a late afternoon/early evening bout of aerobic exercise on postprandial lipid and lipoprotein particle responses to a high-sugar meal breakfast the following day in postmenopausal women: a randomized cross-over study. J Sports Sci 2022; 40: 175-184 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.1982497.
• 58 Smallcombe JW, Barrett LA, Sherar LB. et al. Short sprints accumulated at school modulate postprandial metabolism in boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 52: 67-76 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002121.
• 59 Alvarez-Jimenez L, Moreno-Cabañas A, Ramirez-Jimenez M. et al. Effects of statins and exercise on postprandial lipoproteins in metabolic syndrome vs metabolically healthy individuals. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 87: 955-964 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14447.
• 60 Bond B, Williams CA, Isic C. et al. Exercise intensity and postprandial health outcomes in adolescents. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 115: 927-936 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-014-3074-8.
• 61 Littlefield LA, Papadakis Z, Rogers KM. et al. The effect of exercise intensity and excess postexercise oxygen consumption on postprandial blood lipids in physically inactive men. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2017; 42: 986-993 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2016-0581.
• 62 Bittel AJ, Bittel DC, Mittendorfer B. et al. A single bout of premeal resistance exercise improves postprandial glucose metabolism in obese men with prediabetes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53: 694-703 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002538.
• 63 Wongpipit W, Huang WY, Miyashita M. et al. Frequency of interruptions to prolonged sitting and postprandial metabolic responses in young, obese, Chinese men. J Sports Sci 2021; 39: 1376-1385 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.1874170.
• 64 Miyashita M, Hamada Y, Fujihira K. et al. Energy replacement diminishes the postprandial triglyceride-lowering effect from accumulated walking in older women. Eur J Nutr 2020; 59: 2261-2270 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-020-02234-z.
• 65 Wheeler MJ, Green DJ, Cerin E. et al. Combined effects of continuous exercise and intermittent active interruptions to prolonged sitting on postprandial glucose, insulin, and triglycerides in adults with obesity: a randomized crossover trial. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2020; 17: 152 DOI: 10.1186/s12966-020-01057-9.
• 66 Aoi W, Yamauchi H, Iwasa M. et al. Combined light exercise after meal intake suppresses postprandial serum triglyceride. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013; 45: 245-252 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31826f3107.
• 67 Freese EC, Gist NH, Acitelli RM. et al. Acute and chronic effects of sprint interval exercise on postprandial lipemia in women at-risk for the metabolic syndrome. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2015; 118: 872-879 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00380.2014.
• 68 Paul DJ, Bangsbo J, Nassis GP. Recreational football practice attenuates postprandial lipaemia in normal and overweight individuals. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118: 261-270 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3766-y.
• 69 Teixeira BC, Krüger RL, Farinha JB. et al. Aerobic exercise improves postprandial inflammatory and hemostatic markers after a high-fat meal: a randomized crossover study. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2021; 46: 637-643 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2020-0463.
• 70 Tucker WJ, Sawyer BJ, Jarrett CL. et al. High-intensity interval exercise attenuates but does not eliminate endothelial dysfunction after a fast food meal. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2018; 314: H188-H194 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00384.2017.
• 71 Bond B, Gates PE, Jackman SR. et al. Exercise intensity and the protection from postprandial vascular dysfunction in adolescents. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2015; 308: H1443-H1450 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00074.2015.
• 72 Ramírez-Vélez R, Correa-Rodríguez M, Tordecilla-Sanders A. et al. Exercise and postprandial lipemia: Effects on vascular health in inactive adults. Lipids Health Dis 2018; 17: 69 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-018-0719-3.
• 73 Emerson SR, Kurti SP, Snyder BS. et al. Effects of thirty and sixty minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on postprandial lipemia and inflammation in overweight men: A randomized cross-over study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2016; 13: 26 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-016-0137-8.
• 74 Teeman CS, Kurti SP, Cull BJ. et al. The effect of moderate intensity exercise in the postprandial period on the inflammatory response to a high-fat meal: An experimental study. Nutr J 2016; 15: 24 DOI: 10.1186/s12937-016-0134-4.
• 75 Bloomer RJ, Fisher-Wellman KH, Bell HK. The effect of long-term, high-volume aerobic exercise training on postprandial lipemia and oxidative stress. Phys Sportsmed 2010; 38: 64-71 DOI: 10.3810/psm.2010.04.1763.
• 76 Arjunan SP, Bishop NC, Reischak-Oliveira A. et al. Exercise and coronary heart disease risk markers in south Asian and European men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013; 45: 1261-1268 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182853ecf.
• 77 Brandauer J, Landers-Ramos RQ, Jenkins NT. et al. Effects of prior acute exercise on circulating cytokine concentration responses to a high-fat meal. Physiol Rep 2013; 1: e00040 DOI: 10.1002/phy2.40.
• 78 Tan MS, Mok A, Yap MC. et al. Effect of sprint interval versus continuous cycling on postprandial lipaemia. J Sports Sci 2013; 31: 989-995 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2012.759661.
• 79 Johnson AM, Kurti SP, Smith JR. et al. Effects of an acute bout of moderate-intensity exercise on postprandial lipemia and airway inflammation. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2015; 41: 284-291 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2015-0314.
• 80 Allen E, Gray P, Kollias-Pearson A. et al. The effect of short-duration sprint interval exercise on plasma postprandial triacylglycerol levels in young men. J Sports Sci 2014; 32: 911-916 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2013.865254.
• 81 Yang T-J, Chiu C-H, Wu C-L. et al. Thirty minutes of moderate-intensity downhill or level running has no effect on postprandial lipemia: A randomized controlled trial. Chin J Physiol 2021; 64: 244 DOI: 10.4103/cjp.cjp_61_21.
• 82 Pearson RC, Olenick AA, Green ES. et al. Tabata-style functional exercise increases resting and postprandial fat oxidation but does not reduce triglyceride concentrations. Exp Physiol 2020; 105: 468-476 DOI: 10.1113/EP088330.
• 83 Bodell NG, Gillum T. 90 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise does not attenuate postprandial triglycerides in older adults. Int J Exerc Sci 2016; 9: 677-684
• 84 Correa CS, Teixeira BC, Macedo RCO. et al. Resistance exercise at variable volume does not reduce postprandial lipemia in postmenopausal women. Age (Dordr) 2014; 36: 869-879 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-013-9610-3.
• 85 Gao R, Rapin N, Elnajmi AM. et al. Skim milk as a recovery beverage after exercise is superior to a sports drink for reducing next-day postprandial blood glucose and increasing postprandial fat oxidation. Nutr Res 2020; 82: 58-66 DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2020.08.007.
• 86 Sedgwick MJ, Morris JG, Nevill ME. et al. The accumulation of exercise and postprandial endothelial function in boys. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014; 24: e11-e19 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12101.
• 87 Bond B, Cockcroft EJ, Williams CA. et al. Two weeks of high-intensity interval training improves novel but not traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors in adolescents. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2015; 309: H1039-H1047 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00360.2015.
• 88 Thackray AE, Barrett LA, Tolfrey K. Energy replacement diminishes the effect of exercise on postprandial lipemia in boys. Metabolism 2016; 65: 496-506 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2015.12.001.
• 89 Gill JMR, Hardman AE. Postprandial lipemia: Effects of exercise and restriction of energy intake compared. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71: 465-471 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/71.2.465.
• 90 Burton HM, Wolfe AS, Vardarli E. et al. Background inactivity blunts metabolic adaptations to intense short-term training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53: 1937-1944 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002646.
• 91 Akins JD, Crawford CK, Burton HM. et al. Inactivity induces resistance to the metabolic benefits following acute exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2019; 126: 1088-1094 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00968.2018.
• 92 Kim IY, Park S, Chou TH. et al. Prolonged sitting negatively affects the postprandial plasma triglyceridelowering effect of acute exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2016; 311: E891-E898 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00287.2016.
• 93 Lopes AL, Macedo RCO, Krüger RL. et al. Fasted exercise does not improve postprandial lipemia responses to different meals in lean and obese subjects: A crossover, randomized clinical trial. Clin Nutr ESPEN 2021; 41: 160-167 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnesp.2020.11.013.
• 94 Sacchetti M, Haxhi J, Sgrò P. et al. Effects of exercise before and/or after a mixed lunch on postprandial metabolic responses in healthy male individuals. Eur J Nutr 2021; 60: 3437-3447 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-021-02512-4.
• 95 Canale RE, Farney TM, McCarthy CG. et al. Influence of acute exercise of varying intensity and duration on postprandial oxidative stress. Eur J Appl Physiol 2014; 114: 1913-1924 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-014-2912-z.
• 96 Brown M, McClean CM, Davison GW. et al. Preceding exercise and postprandial hypertriglyceridemia: Effects on lymphocyte cell DNA damage and vascular inflammation. Lipids Health Dis 2019; 18: 125 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-019-1071-y.
• 97 Mora-Rodriguez R, Ortega JF, Morales-Palomo F. et al. Effects of statin therapy and exercise on postprandial triglycerides in overweight individuals with hypercholesterolaemia. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 86: 1089-1099 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14217.
• 98 Davitt PM, Arent SM, Tuazon MA. et al. Postprandial triglyceride and free fatty acid metabolism in obese women after either endurance or resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2013; 114: 1743-1754 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00095.2013.
• 99 Allerton DM, West DJ, Stevenson EJ. Whey protein consumption following fasted exercise reduces early postprandial glycaemia in centrally obese males: a randomised controlled trial. Eur J Nutr 2021; 60: 999-1011 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-020-02304-2.
• 100 Farrow MT, Maher JL, Nightingale TE. et al. A single bout of upper-body exercise has no effect on postprandial metabolism in persons with chronic paraplegia. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53: 1041-1049 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002561.
• 101 Yang TJ, Chiu CH, Tseng MH. et al. The influence of pre-exercise glucose versus fructose ingestion on subsequent postprandial lipemia. Nutrients 2018; 10: 149 DOI: 10.3390/nu10020149.
• 102 Saunders TJ, Atkinson HF, Burr J. et al. The Acute metabolic and vascular impact of interrupting prolonged sitting: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med 2018; 48: 2347-2366 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0963-8.
• 103 Loh R, Stamatakis E, Folkerts D. et al. Effects of interrupting prolonged sitting with physical activity breaks on blood glucose, insulin and triacylglycerol measures: A systematic review and meta-analysis.. Sports Med 2020; 50: 295-330 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-019-01183-w.
• 104 Charlett OP, Morari V, Bailey DP. Impaired postprandial glucose and no improvement in other cardiometabolic responses or cognitive function by breaking up sitting with bodyweight resistance exercises: a randomised crossover trial. J Sports Sci 2021; 39: 792-800 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1847478.
• 105 Cho MJ, Bunsawat K, Kim HJ. et al. The acute effects of interrupting prolonged sitting with stair climbing on vascular and metabolic function after a high-fat meal. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 120: 829-839 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04321-9.
• 106 Rafiei H, Omidian K, Myette-Côté É. et al. Metabolic effect of breaking up prolonged sitting with stair climbing exercise snacks. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53: 150-158 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002431.
• 107 Wongpipit W, Zhang X, Miyashita M. et al. Interrupting prolonged sitting reduces postprandial glucose concentration in young men with central obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2021; 106: E791-E802 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa834.
• 108 Kowalsky RJ, Jakicic JM, Hergenroeder A. et al. Acute cardiometabolic effects of interrupting sitting with resistance exercise breaks. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2019; 44: 1025-1032 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2018-0633.
• 109 Yates T, Edwardson CL, Celis-Morales C. et al. Metabolic effects of breaking prolonged sitting with standing or light walking in older south asians and white europeans: A randomized acute study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2020; 75: 139-146 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/gly252.
• 110 Homer AR, Taylor FC, Dempsey PC. et al. Frequency of Interruptions to sitting time: benefits for postprandial metabolism in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2021; 44: 1254-1263 DOI: 10.2337/dc20-1410.
• 111 Haxhi J, Scotto Di Palumbo A, Sacchetti M. Exercising for metabolic control: Is timing important?. Ann Nutr Metab 2013; 62: 14-25 DOI: 10.1159/000343788.
• 112 Heden TD, Kanaley JA. Syncing exercise with meals and circadian clocks. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2019; 47: 22-28 DOI: 10.1249/JES.0000000000000172.
• 113 Diekmann C, Huber H, Preuß M. et al. Moderate postmeal walking has no beneficial effects over resting on postprandial lipemia, glycemia, insulinemia, and selected oxidative and inflammatory parameters in older adults with a cardiovascular disease risk phenotype: A randomized crossover trial. J Nutr 2019; 149: 1930-1941 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxz148.
• 114 Kurti SP, Rosenkranz SK, Levitt M. et al. Does moderate intensity exercise attenuate the postprandial lipemic and airway inflammatory response to a high-fat meal?. Biomed Res Int 2015; 2015: 647952 DOI: 10.1155/2015/647952.
• 115 Augustine J, Tarzia B, Kasprowicz A. et al. Effect of a single bout of resistance exercise on arterial stiffness following a high-fat meal. Int J Sports Med 2014; 35: 894-899 DOI: 10.1055/s-0033-1363266.
• 116 Mougios V. Exercise Biochemistry. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers Inc; 2020
• 117 Sabaka P, Kruzliak P, Balaz D. et al. Effect of short term aerobic exercise on fasting and postprandial lipoprotein subfractions in healthy sedentary men. Lipids Health Dis 2015; 14: 151 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-015-0148-5.
• 118 Drexel H, Mader A, Saely CH. et al. Downhill hiking improves low-grade inflammation, triglycerides, body weight and glucose tolerance. Sci Rep 2021; 11: 14503 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93879-1.
• 119 Das EK, Lai PY, Robinson AT. et al. Regular aerobic, resistance, and cross-training exercise prevents reduced vascular function following a high sugar or high fat mixed meal in young healthy adults. Front Physiol 2018; 9: 183 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00183.
• 120 Bidwell AJ, Fairchild TJ, Redmond J. et al. Physical activity offsets the negative effects of a high-fructose diet. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2014; 46: 2091-2098 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000343.
• 121 Mitchell BD, Kalra G, Ryan KA. et al. Increased usual physical activity is associated with a blunting of the triglyceride response to a high-fat meal. J Clin Lipidol 2019; 13: 109-114 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacl.2018.11.006.
• 122 Correa CS, Teixeira BC, Cobos RCR. et al. High-volume resistance training reduces postprandial lipaemia in postmenopausal women. J Sports Sci 2015; 33: 1890-1901 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1017732.
• 123 Wilhelmsen A, Mallinson J, Jones R. et al. Chronic effects of high-intensity interval training on postprandial lipemia in healthy men. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2019; 127: 1763-1771 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00131.2019.
• 124 Bozzetto L, Annuzzi G, Costabile G. et al. A CHO/fibre diet reduces and a MUFA diet increases postprandial lipaemia in type 2 diabetes: No supplementary effects of low-volume physical training. Acta Diabetol 2014; 51: 385-393 DOI: 10.1007/s00592-013-0522-6.
• 125 Leon-Acuña A, Torres-Peña JD, Alcala-Diaz JF. et al. Lifestyle factors modulate postprandial hypertriglyceridemia: From the CORDIOPREV study. Atherosclerosis 2019; 290: 118-124 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2019.09.025.
• 126 Paul DJ, Nassis GP, Kerouani AC. et al. Postprandial lipaemia 10 and 34 hours after playing football: Does playing frequency affect the response?. PLoS One 2019; 14: e0218043 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218043.
• 127 Emerson SR, Kurti SP, Emerson EM. et al. Postprandial metabolic responses differ by age group and physical activity level. J Nutr Health Aging 2018; 22: 145-153 DOI: 10.1007/s12603-017-0956-6.
• 128 Koemel NA, Sciarrillo CM, Bode KB. et al. Postprandial metabolism and vascular function: Impact of aging and physical activity level. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2020; 30: 412-419 DOI: 10.1123/IJSNEM.2020-0063.
• 129 Ashton RE, Tew GA, Aning JJ. et al. Effects of short-term, medium-term and long-term resistance exercise training on cardiometabolic health outcomes in adults: Systematic review with meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2020; 54: 341-348 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098970.
• 130 Kim IY, Park S, Trombold JR. et al. Effects of moderate- and intermittent low-intensity exercise on Postprandial Lipemia. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2014; 46: 1882-1890 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000324.
• 131 Seip RL, Mair K, Cole TG. et al. Induction of human skeletal muscle lipoprotein lipase gene expression by short-term exercise is transient. Am J Physiol 1997; 272: E255-E261 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.1997.272.2.e255.
• 132 Alvarez-Jimenez L, Moreno-Cabañas A, Ramirez-Jimenez M. et al. Effectiveness of statins vs. exercise on reducing postprandial hypertriglyceridemia in dyslipidemic population: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Sport Health Sci 2021; DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2021.07.006. . Online ahead of print
• 133 Kiens B, Richter EA. Utilization of skeletal muscle triacylglycerol during postexercise recovery in humans. Am J Physiol 1998; 275: E332-E337 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.1998.275.2.e332.
• 134 Malkova D, Gill JM. Effects of exercise on postprandial lipoprotein metabolism. Future Lipidol 2006; 1: 743-755 DOI: 10.2217/17460875.1.6.743.
• 135 Trombold JR, Christmas KM, MacHin DR. et al. Acute high-intensity endurance exercise is more effective than moderate-intensity exercise for attenuation of postprandial triglyceride elevation. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2013; 114: 792-800 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01028.2012.