Subscribe to RSS
Please copy the URL and add it into your RSS Feed Reader.
https://www.thieme-connect.de/rss/thieme/en/10.1055-s-00000004.xml
Download PDF
Aktuelle Neurologie 2011; 38(3): 134-149
DOI: 10.1055/s-0030-1266125
DOI: 10.1055/s-0030-1266125
Übersicht
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New YorkDifferenzialdiagnostik seltener Schlaganfallursachen
Differential Diagnosis of Rare Stroke AetiologiesFurther Information
Publication History
Publication Date:
21 April 2011 (online)
Zusammenfassung
Vor allem bei Schlaganfallpatienten mit einem Alter unter 60 Jahren finden sich gehäuft seltene Schlaganfallursachen. Ihnen kommt große klinische Bedeutung zu, da bei korrekter Diagnosestellung eine spezifische Therapie eingeleitet werden kann, um weiteren Schlaganfällen vorzubeugen. Daher sollte bei jüngeren Patienten ein ischämischer Schlaganfall erst dann als kryptogen klassifiziert werden, nachdem eine umfassende Diagnostik durchgeführt wurde. Diese Übersichtsarbeit ausgewählter Literatur berichtet über seltene Schlaganfallursachen wie beispielsweise Gefäßerkrankungen, Morbus Fabry, Moyamoya oder hämatologische Erkrankungen, um dem Leser einen generellen Überblick zu geben.
Abstract
Stroke patients younger than 60 years of age frequently present with rare aetiologies of stroke. It is important to detect these rare aetiologies to initiate specific therapy to prevent future strokes in these patients. Therefore, ischaemic stroke in young patients should not be classified as cryptogenic unless a complete diagnostic work-up has been performed. This selected literature review covers rare stroke aetiologies, including vascular disorders, Morbus Fabry, Moyamoya or haematological disorders, to give the reader a general overview.
Schlüsselwörter
Schlaganfall - Ursache - selten - kryptogen
Keywords
stroke - aetiology - rare causes - cryptogenic
Literatur
- 1 Slovut D P, Olin J W. Fibromuscular dysplasia. N Engl J Med. 2004; 350 1862-1871
- 2 Luscher T F, Lie J T, Stanson A W et al. Arterial fibromuscular dysplasia. Mayo Clin Proc. 1987; 62 931-952
- 3 Olin J W. Recognizing and managing fibromuscular dysplasia. Cleve Clin J Med. 2007; 74 273-274, 277–282
- 4 Afifi A K, Godersky J C, Menezes A et al. Cerebral hemiatrophy, hypoplasia of internal carotid artery, and intracranial aneurysm. A rare association occurring in an infant. Arch Neurol. 1987; 44 232-235
- 5 Ide C, de Coene B, Mailleux P et al. Hypoplasia of the internal carotid artery: a noninvasive diagnosis. Eur Radiol. 2000; 10 1865-1870
- 6 Kubis N, Zuber M, Méder J F et al. CT scan of the skull base in internal carotid artery hypoplasia. Cerebrovasc Dis. 1996; 6 40-44
- 7 Brant-Zawadzki M. Routine MR imaging of the internal carotid artery siphon: angiographic correlation with cervical carotid lesions. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1990; 155 359-363
- 8 Quint D J, Silbergleit R, Young W C. Absence of the carotid canals at skull base CT. Radiology. 1992; 182 477-481
- 9 Kayembe K N, Sasahara M, Hazama F. Cerebral aneurysms and variations in the circle of Willis. Stroke. 1984; 15 846-850
- 10 Given 2nd C A, Huang-Hellinger F, Baker M D et al. Congenital absence of the internal carotid artery: case reports and review of the collateral circulation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2001; 22 1953-1959
- 11 Friedman M H, Deters O J, Mark F F et al. Arterial geometry affects hemodynamics. A potential risk factor for athersoclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 1983; 46 225-231
- 12 Weibel J, Fields W S. Tortuosity, coiling, and kinking of the internal carotid artery. I. Etiology and radiographic anatomy. Neurology. 1965; 15 7-18
- 13 Cioffi F A, Meduri M, Tomasello F et al. Kinking and coiling of the internal carotid artery: clinical-statistical observations and surgical perspectives. J Neurosurg Sci. 1975; 19 15-22
- 14 Metz H, Murray-Leslie R M, Bannister R G et al. Kinking of the internal carotid artery. Lancet. 1961; 1 424-426
- 15 Stanton Jr P E, McClusky Jr D A, Lamis P A. Hemodynamic assessment and surgical correction of kinking of the internal carotid artery. Surgery. 1978; 84 793-802
- 16 Perdue G D, Barreca J P, Smith 3rd R B et al. The significance of elongation and angulation of the carotid artery: a negative view. Surgery. 1975; 77 45-52
- 17 Vannlx R S, Jorganson E J, Carter R. Kinking of the internal carotid artery: clinical significance and surgical management. Am J Surg. 1977; 134 82-89
- 18 Schievink W I, Limburg M, Oorthuys J W et al. Cerebrovascular disease in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV. Stroke. 1990; 21 626-632
- 19 Germain D P. Clinical and genetic features of vascular Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. Ann Vasc Surg. 2002; 16 391-397
- 20 Oderich G S, Panneton J M, Bower T C et al. The spectrum, management and clinical outcome of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV: a 30-year experience. J Vasc Surg. 2005; 42 98-106
- 21 Debette S, Markus H S. The genetics of cervical artery dissection: a systematic review. Stroke. 2009; 40 e459-466
- 22 Pyeritz R E. The Marfan syndrome. Annu Rev Med. 2000; 51 481-510
- 23 Loeys B, De Backer J, van Acker P et al. Comprehensive molecular screening of the FBN1 gene favors locus homogeneity of classical Marfan syndrome. Hum Mutat. 2004; 24 140-146
- 24 Wityk R J, Zanferrari C, Oppenheimer S. Neurovascular complications of marfan syndrome: a retrospective, hospital-based study. Stroke. 2002; 33 680-684
- 25 Zach V, Zhovtis S, Kirchoff-Torres K F et al. Common carotid artery dissection: a case report and review of the literature. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2010; [Epub ahead of print]
- 26 Steinke W, Schwartz A, Hennerici M. Doppler color flow imaging of common carotid artery dissection. Neuroradiology. 1990; 32 502-505
- 27 Noel M, Short J, Farooq M U. Thrombolytic therapy in a patient with acute ischemic stroke caused by aortic dissection. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2010; 112 695-696
- 28 Estrera A L, Miller 3rd C C, Madisetty J et al. Ascending and transverse aortic arch repair: the impact of glomerular filtration rate on mortality. Ann Surg. 2008; 247 524-529
- 29 Debette S, Leys D. Cervical-artery dissections: predisposing factors, diagnosis, and outcome. Lancet Neurol. 2009; 8 668-678
- 30 Chan C C, Paine M, O’Day J. Carotid dissection: a common cause of Horner’s syndrome. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2001; 29 411-415
- 31 Kim Y K, Schulman S. Cervical artery dissection: pathology, epidemiology and management. Thromb Res. 2009; 123 810-821
- 32 Rigamonti A, Iurlaro S, Reganati P et al. Cluster headache and internal carotid artery dissection: two cases and review of the literature. Headache. 2008; 48 467-470
- 33 Waespe W, Niesper J, Imhof H G et al. Lower cranial nerve palsies due to internal carotid dissection. Stroke. 1988; 19 1561-1564
- 34 Krings T, Choi I S. The many faces of intracranial arterial dissections. Interv Neuroradiol. 2010; 16 151-160
- 35 Arnold M, Nedeltchev K, Sturzenegger M et al. Thrombolysis in patients with acute stroke caused by cervical artery dissection: analysis of 9 patients and review of the literature. Arch Neurol. 2002; 59 549-553
- 36 Goyal M S, Derdeyn C P. The diagnosis and management of supraaortic arterial dissections. Curr Opin Neurol. 2009; 22 80-89
- 37 Baumgartner R W. Management of spontaneous dissection of the cervical carotid artery. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2010; 107 57-61
- 38 Georgiadis D, Arnold M, von Buedingen H C et al. Aspirin vs anticoagulation in carotid artery dissection: a study of 298 patients. Neurology. 2009; 72 1810-1815
- 39 Lyrer P, Engelter S. Antithrombotic drugs for carotid artery dissection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; CD000255
- 40 Benninger D H, Gandjour J, Georgiadis D et al. Benign long-term outcome of conservatively treated cervical aneurysms due to carotid dissection. Neurology. 2007; 69 486-487
- 41 Arauz A, Hoyos L, Espinoza C et al. Dissection of cervical arteries: long-term follow-up study of 130 consecutive cases. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2006; 22 150-154
- 42 Abou-Chebl A. Cervical artery dissection. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2009; 11 167-175
- 43 Li W, D’Ayala M, Hirshberg A et al. Comparison of conservative and operative treatment for blunt carotid injuries: analysis of the National Trauma Data Bank. J Vasc Surg. 2010; 51 593-599
- 44 Cohen J E, Ben-Hur T, Rajz G et al. Endovascular stent-assisted angioplasty in the management of traumatic internal carotid artery dissections. Stroke. 2005; 36 e45-47
- 45 Burke G M, Burke A M, Sherma A K et al. Moyamoya disease: a summary. Neurosurg Focus. 2009; 26 E11
- 46 Kraemer M, Heienbrok W, Berlit P. Moyamoya disease in Europeans. Stroke. 2008; 39 3193-3200
- 47 Jabbour R, Taher A, Shamseddine A et al. Moyamoya syndrome with intraventricular hemorrhage in an adult with factor V Leiden mutation. Arch Neurol. 2005; 62 1144-1146
- 48 Mehdorn H M. Cerebral revascularization by EC-IC bypass – present status. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2008; 103 73-77
- 49 Ishii K, Morishige M, Anan M et al. Superficial temporal artery-to-middle cerebral artery anastomosis with encephalo-duro-myo-synangiosis as a modified operative procedure for moyamoya disease. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2010; 107 95-99
- 50 Mateen F J, Monrad P A, Leep Hunderfund A N et al. Clinically suspected fibrocartilaginous embolism: clinical characteristics, treatments, and outcomes. Eur J Neurol. 2010; 18 218-225
- 51 Lipton R B, Bigal M E. The epidemiology of migraine. Am J Med. 2005; 118 (S 01) 3S-10S
- 52 The International Classification of Headache Disorders: 2nd edition. Cephalalgia. 2004; 24 (S 01) 9-160
- 53 Etminan M, Takkouche B, Isorna F C et al. Risk of ischaemic stroke in people with migraine: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ. 2005; 330 63
- 54 Kurth T, Gaziano J M, Cook N R et al. Migraine and risk of cardiovascular disease in women. JAMA. 2006; 296 283-291
- 55 Kurth T, Schurks M, Logroscino G et al. Migraine, vascular risk, and cardiovascular events in women: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2008; 337 a636
- 56 MacClellan L R, Giles W, Cole J et al. Probable migraine with visual aura and risk of ischemic stroke: the stroke prevention in young women study. Stroke. 2007; 38 2438-2445
- 57 Arboix A, Massons J, Garcia-Eroles L et al. Migrainous cerebral infarction in the Sagrat Cor Hospital of Barcelona stroke registry. Cephalalgia. 2003; 23 389-394
- 58 Sacquegna T, Andreoli A, Baldrati A et al. Ischemic stroke in young adults: the relevance of migrainous infarction. Cephalalgia. 1989; 9 255-258
- 59 Goadsby P J, Lipton R B, Ferrari M D. Migraine – current understanding and treatment. N Engl J Med. 2002; 346 257-270
- 60 Diener H C. Schlaganfall.. Stuttgart, New York: Thieme; 2004
- 61 James A H, Bushnell C D, Jamison M G et al. Incidence and risk factors for stroke in pregnancy and the puerperium. Obstet Gynecol. 2005; 106 509-516
- 62 Chang J, Elam-Evans L D, Berg C J et al. Pregnancy-related mortality surveillance – United States, 1991–1999. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2003; 52 1-8
- 63 Lanska D J, Kryscio R J. Risk factors for peripartum and postpartum stroke and intracranial venous thrombosis. Stroke. 2000; 31 1274-1282
- 64 Ros H S, Lichtenstein P, Bellocco R et al. Pulmonary embolism and stroke in relation to pregnancy: how can high-risk women be identified?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002; 186 198-203
- 65 Oehler J, Lichy C, Gandjour J et al. [Dissection of four cerebral arteries after protracted birth]. Nervenarzt. 2003; 74 366-369
- 66 Jaigobin C, Silver F L. Stroke and pregnancy. Stroke. 2000; 31 2948-2951
- 67 van Lindert N H, Bienfait H P, Gratama J W et al. Screening for aneurysm of the abdominal aorta: prevalence in patients with stroke or TIA. Eur J Neurol. 2009; 16 602-607
- 68 Binaghi S, Saint-Maurice J P, Laurian C et al. Embolic stroke complicating cervical aneurysm. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2006; 22 196-198
- 69 Ildan F, Cetinalp E, Bagdatoglu H et al. Giant fusiform aneurysm of the vertebro-basilar artery presenting with stroke. Neurosurg Rev. 1995; 18 135-138
- 70 Steel J G, Thomas H A, Strollo P J. Fusiform basilar aneurysm as a cause of embolic stroke. Stroke. 1982; 13 712-716
- 71 Suzuki S, Inoue T, Haga S et al. Stroke due to a fusiform aneurysm of the cervical vertebral artery: case report. Neuroradiology. 1998; 40 19-22
- 72 Boggio P, Luna P C, Abad M E et al. Fabry disease. An Bras Dermatol. 2009; 84 367-376
- 73 Sims K, Politei J, Banikazemi M et al. Stroke in Fabry disease frequently occurs before diagnosis and in the absence of other clinical events: natural history data from the Fabry Registry. Stroke. 2009; 40 788-794
- 74 Salviati A, Burlina A P, Borsini W. Nervous system and Fabry disease, from symptoms to diagnosis: damage evaluation and follow-up in adult patients, enzyme replacement, and support therapy. Neurol Sci. 2010; 31 299-306
- 75 Moore D F, Altarescu G, Ling G S et al. Elevated cerebral blood flow velocities in Fabry disease with reversal after enzyme replacement. Stroke. 2002; 33 525-531
- 76 Martinez-Fernandez E, Gil-Peralta A, Garcia-Lozano R et al. Mitochondrial disease and stroke. Stroke. 2001; 32 2507-2510
- 77 Meschia J F, Brott T G, Brown Jr R D. Genetics of cerebrovascular disorders. Mayo Clin Proc. 2005; 80 122-132
- 78 Nonaka I. Mitochondria DNA mutations induce variable clinical symptoms including „stroke” in younger and aged persons. Intern Med. 1996; 35 924
- 79 Gilchrist J M, Sikirica M, Stopa E et al. Adult-onset MELAS. Evidence for involvement of neurons as well as cerebral vasculature in strokelike episodes. Stroke. 1996; 27 1420-1423
- 80 Tzoulis C, Bindoff L A. Serial diffusion imaging in a case of mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes. Stroke. 2009; 40 e15-17
- 81 Conforto A B, Yamamoto F I, Oba-Shinjo S M et al. Screening for MELAS mutations in young patients with stroke of undetermined origin. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2007; 65 371-376
- 82 Cathomas G, Szucs T D. Bedeutung und Epidemiologie der Endokarditis. Kardiovaskuläre Medizin. 2004; 7 181-184
- 83 Davenport J, Hart R G. Prosthetic valve endocarditis 1976–1987. Antibiotics, anticoagulation, and stroke. Stroke. 1990; 21 993-999
- 84 Hart R G, Foster J W, Luther M F et al. Stroke in infective endocarditis. Stroke. 1990; 21 695-700
- 85 Salgado A V. Central nervous system complications of infective endocarditis. Stroke. 1991; 22 1461-1463
- 86
Cooper H A, Thompson E C, Laureno R et al.
Subclinical brain embolization in left-sided infective endocarditis: results from
the evaluation by MRI of the brains of patients with left-sided intracardiac solid
masses (EMBOLISM) pilot study.
Circulation.
2009;
120
585-591
MissingFormLabel
- 87 Rabinstein A A. Stroke in HIV-infected patients: a clinical perspective. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2003; 15 37-44
- 88 Restrepo L, McArthur J. Stroke and HIV infection. Stroke. 2003; 34 e176-177 author reply e176–177
- 89 Modi G, Modi M, Mochan A. Stroke and HIV – causal or coincidental co-occurrence?. S Afr Med J. 2006; 96 1247-1248
- 90 Mochan A, Modi M, Modi G. Protein S deficiency in HIV associated ischaemic stroke: an epiphenomenon of HIV infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005; 76 1455-1456
- 91 Qureshi A I. HIV infection and stroke: if not protein S deficiency then what explains the relationship?. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005; 76 1331
- 92 Bova I Y, Bornstein N M, Korczyn A D. Acute infection as a risk factor for ischemic stroke. Stroke. 1996; 27 2204-2206
- 93 Grau A J, Buggle F, Steichen-Wiehn C et al. Clinical and biochemical analysis in infection-associated stroke. Stroke. 1995; 26 1520-1526
- 94 Zurru M C, Alonzo C, Brescacin L et al. Recent respiratory infection predicts atherothrombotic stroke: case-control study in a Buenos Aires healthcare system. Stroke. 2009; 40 1986-1990
- 95 Heuschmann P U, Neureiter D, Gesslein M et al. Association between infection with Helicobacter pylori and Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of ischemic stroke subtypes: Results from a population-based case-control study. Stroke. 2001; 32 2253-2258
- 96 Masoud S A, Arami M A, Kucheki E. Association between infection with Helicobacter pylori and cerebral noncardioembolic ischemic stroke. Neurol India. 2005; 53 303-306; discussion 306–307
- 97 Paganini-Hill A, Lozano E, Fischberg G et al. Infection and risk of ischemic stroke: differences among stroke subtypes. Stroke. 2003; 34 452-457
- 98 Atik B, Johnston S C, Dean D. Association of carotid plaque Lp-PLA(2) with macrophages and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection among patients at risk for stroke. PLoS One. 2010; 5 e11026
- 99 Macko R F, Ameriso S F, Gruber A et al. Impairments of the protein C system and fibrinolysis in infection-associated stroke. Stroke. 1996; 27 2005-2011
- 100 Ringleb P A, Strittmatter E I, Loewer M et al. Cerebrovascular manifestations of Takayasu arteritis in Europe. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2005; 44 1012-1015
- 101 Kim H J, Suh D C, Kim J K et al. Correlation of neurological manifestations of Takayasu’s arteritis with cerebral angiographic findings. Clin Imaging. 2005; 29 79-85
- 102 Tanaka F, Kawakami A, Iwanaga N et al. Infliximab is effective for Takayasu arteritis refractory to glucocorticoid and methotrexate. Intern Med. 2006; 45 313-316
- 103 No Y J, Lee E M, Lee D H et al. Cerebral angiographic findings in thromboangiitis obliterans. Neuroradiology. 2005; 47 912-915
- 104 Olin J W, Shih A. Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger’s disease). Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2006; 18 18-24
- 105 Comu S, Verstraeten T, Rinkoff J S et al. Neurological manifestations of acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy. Stroke. 1996; 27 996-1001
- 106 Brown M M, Thompson A J, Wedzicha J A et al. Sarcoidosis presenting with stroke. Stroke. 1989; 20 400-405
- 107 Hodge M H, Williams R L, Fukui M B. Neurosarcoidosis presenting as acute infarction on diffusion-weighted MR imaging: summary of radiologic findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2007; 28 84-86
- 108 Semb A G, Kvien T K, Aastveit A H et al. Lipids, myocardial infarction and ischaemic stroke in patients with rheumatoid arthritis in the Apolipoprotein-related Mortality RISk (AMORIS) Study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2010; 69 1996-2001
- 109 Cantu-Brito C, Baizabal-Carvallo J F, Alonso-Juarez M et al. The clinical significance of microembolic signals in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurol Res. 2010; 32 134-138
- 110 Jimenez Caballero P E, Segura Martin T. Cardioembolic stroke secondary to non-bacterial endocarditis in Wegener disease. Eur J Neurol. 2007; 14 683-685
- 111 Lucivero V, Mezzapesa D M, Petruzzellis M et al. Ischaemic stroke in progressive systemic sclerosis. Neurol Sci. 2004; 25 230-233
- 112 Alexander E L, Craft C, Dorsch C et al. Necrotizing arteritis and spinal subarachnoid hemorrhage in Sjogren syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1982; 11 632-635
- 113 Bouton R, Capon A. Stroke as initial manifestation of relapsing polychondritis. Ital J Neurol Sci. 1994; 15 61-63
- 114 Hsu K C, Wu Y R, Lyu R K et al. Aseptic meningitis and ischemic stroke in relapsing polychondritis. Clin Rheumatol. 2006; 25 265-267
- 115 Slaviero F, Annes R D, Frighetto L et al. Kohlmeier-Degos Disease (malignant atrophic papulosis) and neurologic involvement. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2009; 67 692-694
- 116 Dilsen N, Konice M, Aral O et al. Comparative study of the skin pathergy test with blunt and sharp needles in Behcet’s disease: confirmed specificity but decreased sensitivity with sharp needles. Ann Rheum Dis. 1993; 52 823-825
- 117 Siva A, Altintas A, Saip S. Behcet’s syndrome and the nervous system. Curr Opin Neurol. 2004; 17 347-357
- 118 Demiroglu H, Ozcebe O I, Barista I et al. Interferon alfa-2b, colchicine, and benzathine penicillin versus colchicine and benzathine penicillin in Behcet’s disease: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2000; 355 605-609
- 119 Boesch S M, Plorer A L, Auer A J et al. The natural course of Sneddon syndrome: clinical and magnetic resonance imaging findings in a prospective six year observation study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003; 74 542-544
- 120 Marinho J L, Piovesan E J, Leite Neto M P et al. Clinical, neurovascular and neuropathological features in Sneddon’s syndrome. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2007; 65 390-395
- 121 Lanthier S, Lortie A, Michaud J et al. Isolated angiitis of the CNS in children. Neurology. 2001; 56 837-842
- 122 Kadkhodayan Y, Alreshaid A, Moran C J et al. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system at conventional angiography. Radiology. 2004; 233 878-882
- 123 Danielsen A G, Weismann K, Jorgensen B B et al. Incidence, clinical presentation and treatment of neurosyphilis in Denmark 1980–1997. Acta Derm Venereol. 2004; 84 459-462
- 124 Berger C T, Wolbers M, Meyer P et al. High incidence of severe ischaemic complications in patients with giant cell arteritis irrespective of platelet count and size, and platelet inhibition. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2009; 48 258-261
- 125 Bley T A, Reinhard M, Hauenstein C et al. Comparison of duplex sonography and high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2008; 58 2574-2578
- 126 Fries J F, Hunder G G, Bloch D A et al. The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of vasculitis. Summary. Arthritis Rheum. 1990; 33 1135-1136
- 127 Nesher G, Berkun Y, Mates M et al. Low-dose aspirin and prevention of cranial ischemic complications in giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2004; 50 1332-1337
- 128 Sanahuja J, Marti-Fabregas J, Marti-Vilalta J L. Carotid thrombus and cerebral infarction as the initial clinical manifestation of polycythemia vera. Neurologia. 2005; 20 194-196
- 129 Zimmermann C, Walther E U, Scheidt W von et al. Ischemic stroke in a 29-year-old man with left atrial spontaneous echoes and polycythemia vera. J Neurol. 1999; 246 1201-1203
- 130 Jha S K, Anand A C, Sharma V et al. Stroke at high altitude: Indian experience. High Alt Med Biol. 2002; 3 21-27
- 131 Gonthier A, Bogousslavsky J. Cerebral infarction of arterial origin and haematological causation: the Lausanne experience and a review of the literature. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2004; 160 1029-1039
- 132 Arboix A, Besses C, Acin P et al. Ischemic stroke as first manifestation of essential thrombocythemia. Report of six cases. Stroke. 1995; 26 1463-1466
- 133 Mallada-Frechin J, Abellan-Miralles I, Medrano V et al. Ischemic stroke as a presentation of essential thrombocythemia. Four case reports. Rev Neurol. 2004; 38 1032-1034
- 134 Muniz A E. Myocardial infarction and stroke as the presenting symptoms of acute myeloid leukemia. J Emerg Med. 2009; [Epub ahead of print]
- 135 Saitoh E, Sugita K, Kurosawa H et al. Cerebral infarction in acute promyelocytic leukemia at initial presentation. Acta Paediatr Jpn. 1995; 37 710-712
- 136 Benito-Leon J, Sanchez J, Osorio S et al. Ischemic stroke as first manifestation of chronic myelogenous leukemia. Rev Neurol. 1999; 29 391-392
- 137 Robak T, Gora-Tybor J, Tybor K et al. Richter’s syndrome in the brain first manifested as an ischaemic stroke. Leuk Lymphoma. 2004; 45 1261-1267
- 138 Rogers L R. Cerebrovascular complications in cancer patients. Neurol Clin. 2003; 21 167-192
- 139 Morris B, Partap S, Yeom K et al. Cerebrovascular disease in childhood cancer survivors: A Children’s Oncology Group Report. Neurology. 2009; 73 1906-1913
- 140 Adams R J. Stroke prevention and treatment in sickle cell disease. Arch Neurol. 2001; 58 565-568
- 141 Portnoy B A, Herion J C. Neurological manifestations in sickle-cell disease, with a review of the literature and emphasis on the prevalence of hemiplegia. Ann Intern Med. 1972; 76 643-652
- 142 Gerald B, Sebes J I, Langston J W. Cerebral infarction secondary to sickle cell disease: arteriographic findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1980; 134 1209-1212
- 143 Jeffries B F, Lipper M H, Kishore P R. Major intracerebral arterial involvement in sickle cell disease. Surg Neurol. 1980; 14 291-295
- 144 Yager J Y, Hartfield D S. Neurologic manifestations of iron deficiency in childhood. Pediatr Neurol. 2002; 27 85-92
- 145 Dan K. Thrombocytosis in iron deficiency anemia. Intern Med. 2005; 44 1025-1026
- 146 Nagai T, Komatsu N, Sakata Y et al. Iron deficiency anemia with marked thrombocytosis complicated by central retinal vein occlusion. Intern Med. 2005; 44 1090-1092
- 147 Belman A L, Roque C T, Ancona R et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis in a child with iron deficiency anemia and thrombocytosis. Stroke. 1990; 21 488-493
- 148 Bruggers C S, Ware R, Altman A J et al. Reversible focal neurologic deficits in severe iron deficiency anemia. J Pediatr. 1990; 117 430-432
- 149 Hartfield D S, Lowry N J, Keene D L et al. Iron deficiency: a cause of stroke in infants and children. Pediatr Neurol. 1997; 16 50-53
- 150 Huttenlocher P R, Smith D B. Acute infantile hemiplegia associated with thrombocytosis. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1968; 10 621-625
- 151 Knizley Jr H, Noyes W D. Iron deficiency anemia, papilledema, thrombocytosis, and transient hemiparesis. Arch Intern Med. 1972; 129 483-486
- 152 Tekin D, Yavuzer S, Tekin M et al. Possible effects of antioxidant status on increased platelet aggregation in childhood iron-deficiency anemia. Pediatr Int. 2001; 43 74-77
- 153 Park M S, Kim B C, Kim I K et al. Cerebral infarction in IgG multiple myeloma with hyperviscosity. J Korean Med Sci. 2005; 20 699-701
- 154 Perez-Diaz H, Serrano-Pozo A, Gonzalez-Marcos J R. Multiple myeloma as a treatable cause of stroke: clinical case and review of the literature. Neurologia. 2007; 22 54-57
- 155 Röth A, Dührsen U. Paroxysmale nächtliche Hämoglobinurie: Pathogenese, Diagnostik und Behandlung. Deutsches Arzteblatt. 2007; 104 192-197
- 156 Audebert H J, Planck J, Eisenburg M et al. Cerebral ischemic infarction in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria report of 2 cases and updated review of 7 previously published patients. J Neurol. 2005; 252 1379-1386
- 157 Poulou L S, Vakrinos G, Pomoni A et al. Stroke in paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria: patterns of disease and outcome. Thromb Haemost. 2007; 98 699-701
- 158 Naithani R, Mahapatra M, Dutta P et al. Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria in childhood and adolescence – a retrospective analysis of 18 cases. Indian J Pediatr. 2008; 75 575-578
- 159 Aksay E, Kiyan S, Ersel M et al. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura mimicking acute ischemic stroke. Emerg Med J. 2006; 23 e51
- 160 Bennett C L, Connors J M, Carwile J M et al. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with clopidogrel. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342 1773-1777
- 161 Fukusako T, Yamashita H, Omoto M et al. Case of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with clopidogrel. Rinsho Shinkeigaku. 2007; 47 635-638
- 162 Verbeke L, Delforge M, Dierickx D. Current insight into thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2010; 21 3-10
- 163 Wijdicks E F, Scott J P. Stroke in the medical intensive-care unit. Mayo Clin Proc. 1998; 73 642-646
- 164 Cushman M, Rosendaal F R, Psaty B M et al. Factor V Leiden is not a risk factor for arterial vascular disease in the elderly: results from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Thromb Haemost. 1998; 79 912-915
- 165 Hankey G J, Eikelboom J W, van Bockxmeer F M et al. Inherited thrombophilia in ischemic stroke and its pathogenic subtypes. Stroke. 2001; 32 1793-1799
- 166 Ridker P M, Hennekens C H, Lindpaintner K et al. Mutation in the gene coding for coagulation factor V and the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, and venous thrombosis in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med. 1995; 332 912-917
- 167 Longstreth Jr W T, Rosendaal F R, Siscovick D S et al. Risk of stroke in young women and two prothrombotic mutations: factor V Leiden and prothrombin gene variant (G20210A). Stroke. 1998; 29 577-580
- 168 Kenet G, Sadetzki S, Murad H et al. Factor V Leiden and antiphospholipid antibodies are significant risk factors for ischemic stroke in children. Stroke. 2000; 31 1283-1288
- 169 Zenz W, Bodo Z, Plotho J et al. Factor V Leiden and prothrombin gene G 20 210 A variant in children with ischemic stroke. Thromb Haemost. 1998; 80 763-766
- 170 Ridker P M, Hennekens C H, Miletich J P. G20210A mutation in prothrombin gene and risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, and venous thrombosis in a large cohort of US men. Circulation. 1999; 99 999-1004
- 171 Smiles A M, Jenny N S, Tang Z et al. No association of plasma prothrombin concentration or the G20210A mutation with incident cardiovascular disease: results from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Thromb Haemost. 2002; 87 614-621
- 172 De Stefano V, Chiusolo P, Paciaroni K et al. Prothrombin G20210A mutant genotype is a risk factor for cerebrovascular ischemic disease in young patients. Blood. 1998; 91 3562-3565
- 173 Lalouschek W, Schillinger M, Hsieh K et al. Matched case-control study on factor V Leiden and the prothrombin G20210A mutation in patients with ischemic stroke / transient ischemic attack up to the age of 60 years. Stroke. 2005; 36 1405-1409
- 174 Camerlingo M, Finazzi G, Casto L et al. Inherited protein C deficiency and nonhemorrhagic arterial stroke in young adults. Neurology. 1991; 41 1371-1373
- 175 De Stefano V, Leone G, Micalizzi P et al. Arterial thrombosis as clinical manifestation of congenital protein C deficiency. Ann Hematol. 1991; 62 180-183
- 176 Girolami A, Simioni P, Lazzaro A R et al. Severe arterial cerebral thrombosis in a patient with protein S deficiency (moderately reduced total and markedly reduced free protein S): a family study. Thromb Haemost. 1989; 61 144-147
- 177 Green D, Otoya J, Oriba H et al. Protein S deficiency in middle-aged women with stroke. Neurology. 1992; 42 1029-1033
- 178 Grewal R P, Goldberg M A. Stroke in protein C deficiency. Am J Med. 1990; 89 538-539
- 179 Kohler J, Kasper J, Witt I et al. Ischemic stroke due to protein C deficiency. Stroke. 1990; 21 1077-1080
- 180 Koller H, Stoll G, Sitzer M et al. Deficiency of both protein C and protein S in a family with ischemic strokes in young adults. Neurology. 1994; 44 1238-1240
- 181 Martinez H R, Rangel-Guerra R A, Marfil L J. Ischemic stroke due to deficiency of coagulation inhibitors. Report of 10 young adults. Stroke. 1993; 24 19-25
- 182 Douay X, Lucas C, Caron C et al. Antithrombin, protein C and protein S levels in 127 consecutive young adults with ischemic stroke. Acta Neurol Scand. 1998; 98 124-127
- 183 Munts A G, van Genderen P J, Dippel D W et al. Coagulation disorders in young adults with acute cerebral ischaemia. J Neurol. 1998; 245 21-25
- 184 Chan A K, deVeber G. Prothrombotic disorders and ischemic stroke in children. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2000; 7 301-308
- 185 Moster M L. Coagulopathies and arterial stroke. J Neuroophthalmol. 2003; 23 63-71
- 186 Quattrone A, Colucci M, Donati M B et al. Stroke in two young siblings with congenital dysfibrinogenemia. Ital J Neurol Sci. 1983; 4 229-232
- 187 Arima T, Motomura M, Nishiura Y et al. Cerebral infarction in a heterozygote with variant antithrombin III. Stroke. 1992; 23 1822-1825
- 188 deVeber G, Monagle P, Chan A et al. Prothrombotic disorders in infants and children with cerebral thromboembolism. Arch Neurol. 1998; 55 1539-1543
- 189 Brey R L, Hart R G, Sherman D G et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and cerebral ischemia in young people. Neurology. 1990; 40 1190-1196
- 190 Brey R L, Stallworth C L, McGlasson D L et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and stroke in young women. Stroke. 2002; 33 2396-2400
- 191 Nencini P, Baruffi M C, Abbate R et al. Lupus anticoagulant and anticardiolipin antibodies in young adults with cerebral ischemia. Stroke. 1992; 23 189-193
- 192 Toschi V, Motta A, Castelli C et al. High prevalence of antiphosphatidylinositol antibodies in young patients with cerebral ischemia of undetermined cause. Stroke. 1998; 29 1759-1764
- 193 Turiel M, Sarzi-Puttini P, Peretti R et al. Thrombotic risk factors in primary antiphospholipid syndrome: a 5-year prospective study. Stroke. 2005; 36 1490-1494
Dr. Oliver Kastrup
Neurologie, Universitätsklinikum Essen
Hufelandstr. 55
45147 Essen
Email: oliver.kastrup@uk-essen.de