Speicheldrüsenerkrankungen im Kindesalter

H. Iro; J. Zenk

doi:10.1055/s-0033-1363969

Laryngo-Rhino-Otologie, Table of Contents

Laryngorhinootologie 2014; 93(S 01): S103-S125
DOI: 10.1055/s-0033-1363969

Referat

Speicheldrüsenerkrankungen im Kindesalter

Salivary Gland Diseases in Childhood

Authors

H. Iro

¹Hals-Nasen-Ohrenklinik, Kopf- und Halschirurgie des Universitätsklinikums Erlangen, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (Direktor: Prof. Dr. Dr. H. Iro)
J. Zenk

¹Hals-Nasen-Ohrenklinik, Kopf- und Halschirurgie des Universitätsklinikums Erlangen, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (Direktor: Prof. Dr. Dr. H. Iro)

Abstract

Zusammenfassung

Speicheldrüsenerkrankungen im Kindesalter sind, abgesehen von den viral induzierten Erkrankungen, insgesamt gesehen eher selten. Dennoch ist es für den HNO-Arzt unerlässlich, auch diese seltenen Erkrankungen bei Kindern und Heranwachsenden zu erkennen und zu diagnostizieren, um dann auch die richtigen therapeutischen Schritte einzuleiten. Die hier vorliegende Arbeit gibt einen Überblick über das gesamte Spektrum der angeborenen und erworbenen Erkrankungen der Speicheldrüsen im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Es wurde dabei, soweit möglich, die aktuelle Literatur zu den einzelnen Themenkomplexen ausgewertet und für den Leser in den wichtigsten Fakten zusammengefasst. Es konnten neben angeborenen Erkrankungen der Speicheldrüsen die wichtigsten Ätiologien für virale und bakterielle Entzündungen, Autoimmunerkrankungen und auch die Tumoren der Speicheldrüsen in diesem Lebensalter berücksichtigt werden. Neben den bekannten Fakten werden auch neue Entwicklungen in der Diagnostik, Bildgebung und der Therapie, einschließlich der Sialendoskopie, bei den obstruktiven Erkrankungen und der chronisch rezidivierenden juvenilen Sialadenitis berücksichtigt. Auch auf mögliche systemische Ursachen von Speicheldrüsenschwellungen und auf die Behandlung der Sialorrhoe wird eingegangen. Auch wenn die Erkrankungen der Speicheldrüsen im Kindesalter meist im Spektrum der Pathologie des Erwachsenen enthalten sind, unterscheiden sie sich doch in ihrer Häufigkeit und gelegentlich auch ihrer Symptomatik. Darüber hinaus werden bei der Diagnostik und insbesondere bei der operativen Therapie von Speicheldrüsenerkrankungen weniger invasive und auch strengere Indikationen gestellt. Aufgrund der Seltenheit von Tumoren der Speicheldrüsen ist es auf jeden Fall zu empfehlen, diese in Zentren mit größerer chirurgischer Erfahrung zu therapieren.

Von entscheidender Bedeutung ist dennoch die Kenntnis der differenzial-diagnostischen Möglichkeiten im Kindesalter, auch in der HNO-Praxis, um eine adäquate Therapie einzuleiten.

Abstract

Salivary Gland Diseases in Childhood

Salivary gland diseases in children are rare, apart from viral-induced diseases. Nevertheless, it is essential for the otolaryngologist to recognize these uncommon findings in children and adolescents and to diagnose and initiate the proper treatment.

The present work provides an overview of the entire spectrum of congenital and acquired diseases of the salivary glands in childhood and adolescence. The current literature was reviewed and the results discussed and summarized.

Besides congenital diseases of the salivary glands in children, the main etiologies of viral and bacterial infections, autoimmune diseases and tumors of the salivary glands were considered. In addition to the known facts, new developments in diagnostics, imaging and therapy, including sialendoscopy in obstructive diseases and chronic recurrent juvenile sialadenitis were taken into account. In addition, systemic causes of salivary gland swelling and the treatment of sialorrhoea were discussed. Although salivary gland diseases in children are usually included in the pathology of the adult, they differ in their incidence and sometimes in their symptoms. Clinical diagnostics and especially the surgical treatment are influenced by a stringent indications and a less invasive strategy. Due to the rarity of tumors of the salivary glands in children, it is recommended to treat them in a specialized center with greater surgical experience.

Altogether the knowledge of the differential diagnoses in salivary gland diseases in children is important for otolaryngologists, to indicate the proper therapeutic approach.

Schlüsselwörter

Speicheldrüsen - Kinder - Entzündungen - Tumoren - Therapie

Key words

salivary glands - children - inflammation - tumors - therapy

Full Text

References

Literatur
1 Zenk J. et al. The diameter of the Stenon and Wharton ducts. Significance for diagnosis and therapy. HNO 1998; 46: 980-985
2 Shikhani AH, Johns ME. Tumors of the major salivary glands in children. Head Neck Surg 1988; 10: 257-263
3 Swilley S. et al. Hepatitis C infection during treatment for childhood cancer: pitfalls in diagnosis and management. Med Pediatr Oncol 2002; 39: 58-59
4 Seifert G, Haubrich MA, Chilla JR. Speicheldrüsenkrankheiten. Thieme Verlag Stuttgart; 1984: 91-97
5 Holmes S. Xerostomia: aetiology and management in cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 1998; 6: 348-355
6 Hidas A. et al. Oral health status, salivary flow rate and salivary quality in children, adolescents and young adults with ADHD. Arch Oral Biol 2011; 56: 1137-1141
7 Bohlender J. et al. Differential distribution and expression of leptin and the functional leptin receptor in major salivary glands of humans. J Endocrinol 2003; 178: 217-223
8 Sonesson M. On minor salivary gland secretion in children, adolescents and adults. Swed Dent J Suppl 2011; 215: 9-64
9 Bhalla S, Tandon S, Satyamoorthy K. Salivary proteins and early childhood caries: A gel electrophoretic analysis. Contemp Clin Dent 2010; 1: 17-22
10 Sag C. et al. The effects of combination treatment with a long-acting beta2-agonist and a corticosteroid on salivary flow rate, secretory immunoglobulin A, and oral health in children and adolescents with moderate asthma: a 1-month, single-blind clinical study. Clin Ther 2007; 29: 2236-2242
11 Psoter WJ. et al. Effect of childhood malnutrition on salivary flow and pH. Arch Oral Biol 2008; 53: 231-237
12 Avsar A. et al. Long-term effects of chemotherapy on caries formation, dental development, and salivary factors in childhood cancer survivors. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2007; 104: 781-789
13 Osterhus IN. et al. Salivary gland pathology as a new finding in Treacher Collins syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2012; 158A: 1320-1325
14 Matsuda C. et al. Salivary gland aplasia with cleft lip and palate: a case report and review of the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1999; 87: 594-599
15 Gruber W. Congenitaler Mangel beider Glandulae submaxillares bei einem wohlgebildeten, erwachsenen Subjecte. Arch Pathol Anat Physiol Klin Med 1885; 102: 9-11
16 Taji SS. et al. Congenital aplasia of the major salivary glands: literature review and case report. Pediatr Dent 2011; 33: 113-118
17 Ferreira AP. et al. Congenital absence of lacrimal puncta and salivary glands: report of a Brazilian family and review. Am J Med Genet 2000; 94: 32-34
18 Wiedemann HR. Salivary gland disorders and heredity. Am J Med Genet 1997; 68: 222-224
19 Seifert G, Thomsen S, Donath K. Bilateral dysgenetic polycystic parotid glands. Morphological analysis and differential diagnosis of a rare disease of the salivary glands. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histol 1981; 390: 273-288
20 Ritvos O. et al. Activin disrupts epithelial branching morphogenesis in developing glandular organs of the mouse. Mech Dev 1995; 50: 229-245
21 Morton RP, Ahmad Z, Jain P. Plunging ranula: congenital or acquired?. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2010; 142: 104-107
22 Mahadevan M, Vasan N. Management of pediatric plunging ranula. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2006; 70: 1049-1054
23 Hopp E, Mortensen B, Kolbenstvedt A. Mylohyoid herniation of the sublingual gland diagnosed by magnetic resonance imaging. Dentomaxillofac Radiol 2004; 33: 351-353
24 Chan DF. et al. Ex utero intrapartum treatment (EXIT) for congenital giant ranula. Acta Paediatr 2006; 95: 1303-1305
25 Harris M. et al. High-grade non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma complicating polypoid nodular lymphoid hyperplasia and multiple lymphomatous polyposis of the intestine. Histopathology 1989; 15: 339-350
26 Taylor GP. Congenital epithelial tumor of the parotid-sialoblastoma. Pediatr Pathol 1988; 8: 447-452
27 Vawter GF, Tefft M. Congenital tumors of the parotid gland. Arch Pathol 1966; 82: 242-245
28 Prigent M. et al. Sialoblastoma of salivary glands in children: chemotherapy should be discussed as an alternative to mutilating surgery. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2010; 74: 942-945
29 Williams SB, Ellis GL, Warnock GR. Sialoblastoma: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical study of 7 cases. Ann Diagn Pathol 2006; 10: 320-326
30 Scott JX. et al. Treatment of metastatic sialoblastoma with chemotherapy and surgery. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008; 50: 134-137
31 Bergeron C. et al. Revisiting the role of doxorubicin in the treatment of rhabdomyosarcoma: an up-front window study in newly diagnosed children with high-risk metastatic disease. Eur J Cancer 2008; 44: 427-431
32 Orvidas LJ. et al. Pediatric parotid masses. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2000; 126: 177-184
33 Ellies M, Laskawi R. Diseases of the salivary glands in infants and adolescents. Head Face Med 2010; 6: 1
34 Weidauer H. AIDS in otorhinolaryngology. Laryngorhinootologie 2000; 79: 662-663
35 Rima BK. Mumps virus. In Webster RG and Granoff A. Encyclopädia of Virology, Mumps Virus. Vol. vol 2. New York: Academic Press; 1994: 876-883
36 Muhlemann K. The molecular epidemiology of mumps virus. Infect Genet Evol 2004; 4: 215-219
37 Richardson M. et al. Evidence base of incubation periods, periods of infectiousness and exclusion policies for the control of communicable diseases in schools and preschools. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001; 20: 380-391
38 Hviid A, Rubin S, Muhlemann K. Mumps. Lancet 2008; 371: 932-944
39 Travis LW, Hecht DW. Acute and chronic inflammatory diseases of the salivary glands: diagnosis and management. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 1977; 10: 329-338
40 Ishida M. et al. Mumps virus infection in adults: three cases of supraglottic edema. Laryngoscope 2006; 116: 2221-2223
41 Bertschat FL, Alexander M. Infertility after mumps orchitis (author’s transl). MMW Munch Med Wochenschr 1981; 123: 606-608
42 Koskiniemi M, Donner M, Pettay O. Clinical appearance and outcome in mumps encephalitis in children. Acta Paediatr Scand 1983; 72: 603-609
43 Vuori M, Lahikainen EA, Peltonen T. Perceptive deafness in connection with mumps. A study of 298 servicemen suffering from mumps. Acta Otolaryngol 1962; 55: 231-236
44 Everberg G. Deafness following mumps. Acta Otolaryngol 1957; 48: 397-403
45 Cusi MG. et al. Rapid detection and typing of circulating mumps virus by reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction. Res Virol 1996; 147: 227-232
46 Davidkin I. et al. Etiology of mumps-like illnesses in children and adolescents vaccinated for measles, mumps, and rubella. J Infect Dis 2005; 191: 719-723
47 Buyukavci M, Yildirim ZK, Tan H. High-dose IVIG therapy in a child with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with mumps. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2005; 27: 56-57
48 Bajaj NP. et al. Acute transverse myelitis and Guillain-Barre overlap syndrome with serological evidence for mumps viraemia. Acta Neurol Scand 2001; 104: 239-242
49 Sonmez FM. et al. Brainstem encephalitis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis following mumps. Pediatr Neurol 2004; 30: 132-134
50 Takla A. et al. Mumps epidemiology in Germany 2007–2011. Euro Surveill 2013; 18: 20557
51 de Jong MD. et al. Summary of the II International Symposium on Cytomegalovirus. Antiviral Res 1998; 39: 141-162
52 Bale Jr JF. et al. Cytomegalovirus reinfection in young children. J Pediatr 1996; 128: 347-352
53 Ussmuller J. Viral sialadenitis. HNO 2010; 58: 225-228
54 Mayer M, Haddad Jr J. Human immunodeficiency virus infection presenting with lymphoepithelial cysts in a six-year-old child. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1996; 105: 242-244
55 Hobbs CG. et al. Tonsil T cell immunity to human papillomavirus in the absence of detectable virus in healthy adults. Laryngoscope 2008; 118: 459-463
56 Del Bono V. et al. Possible malignant transformation of benign lymphoepithelial parotid lesions in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: report of three cases. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 947-949
57 Morales-Aguirre JJ. et al. Parotid cysts in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus: report of 4 cases. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2005; 131: 353-355
58 Syebele K. et al. Quantification of HIV-1 viral load in the fluid of ranulas in HIV-positive patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2011; 111: 715-719
59 Syebele K, Butow KW. Comparative study of the effect of antiretroviral therapy on benign lymphoepithelial cyst of parotid glands and ranulas in HIV-positive patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2011; 111: 205-210
60 Steehler MK, Steehler MW, Davison SP. Benign lymphoepithelial cysts of the parotid: long-term surgical results. HIV AIDS (Auckl) 2012; 4: 81-86
61 Ismail EA. et al. Neonatal suppurative parotitis over the last 4 decades: report of three new cases and review. Pediatr Int 2013; 55: 60-64
62 Managoli S, Chaturvedi P. Suppurative parotitis in a neonate. Indian Pediatr 2002; 39: 407-408
63 Moritz ML, Ayus JC. Hospital-induced hyponatremia. J Pediatr 2005; 147: 273-274 author reply 274–275
64 Chevalier J, Jadcherla SR. Parotid swelling in a premature neonate. Am J Perinatol 2002; 19: 435-438
65 Beck S. et al. The worldwide incidence of preterm birth: a systematic review of maternal mortality and morbidity. Bull World Health Organ 2010; 88: 31-38
66 Leake D, Leake R. Neonatal suppurative parotitis. Pediatrics 1970; 46: 202-207
67 Stong BC, Sipp JA, Sobol SE. Pediatric parotitis: a 5-year review at a tertiary care pediatric institution. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2006; 70: 541-544
68 Raad II, Sabbagh MF, Caranasos GJ. Acute bacterial sialadenitis: a study of 29 cases and review. Rev Infect Dis 1990; 12: 591-601
69 Saarinen RT, Kolho KL, Pitkaranta A. Cases presenting as parotid abscesses in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2007; 71: 897-901
70 Giglio MS, Landaeta M, Pinto ME. Microbiology of recurrent parotitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997; 16: 386-390
71 Chatterjee A, Varman M, Quinlan TW. Parotid abscess caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001; 20: 912-914
72 Schneider H. et al. Juvenile recurrent parotitis: A retrospective comparison of sialendoscopy versus conservative therapy. Laryngoscope 2013; 451-455
73 Koch M. et al. Results of minimally invasive gland-preserving treatment in different types of parotid duct stenosis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2012; 138: 804-810
74 Koch M. et al. Diagnosis and gland-preserving minimally invasive therapy for Wharton’s duct stenoses. Laryngoscope 2012; 122: 552-558
75 Koch M, Iro H, Zenk J. Stenosis and other non-sialolithiasis-related obstructions of the major salivary gland ducts. Modern treatment concepts. HNO 2010; 58: 218-224
76 Koch M, Zenk J, Iro H. Algorithms for treatment of salivary gland obstructions. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2009; 42: 1173-1192 Table of Contents
77 Koch M, Iro H, Zenk J. Sialendoscopy-based diagnosis and classification of parotid duct stenoses. Laryngoscope 2009; 119: 1696-1703
78 Koch M. et al. Long-term experiences in the therapy of esthesioneuroblastoma. Laryngorhinootologie 2006; 85: 723-730
79 Bodner L, Azaz B. Submandibular sialolithiasis in children. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1982; 40: 55 l-554
80 Reuther J, Hausamen JE. Submaxillary salivary calculus in children (author’s transl). Klin Padiatr 1976; 188: 285-288
81 Horie N. et al. Parotid sialolithiasis in a child. J Clin Pediatr Dent 1995; 20: 61-62
82 Zenk J. et al. Clinical and diagnostic findings of sialolithiasis. HNO 1999; 47: 963-969
83 Zenk J. et al. Sialendoscopy in the diagnosis and treatment of sialolithiasis: a study on more than 1 000 patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2012; 147: 858-863
84 Hackett AM. et al. Sialoendoscopy for the treatment of pediatric salivary gland disorders. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2012; 138: 912-915
85 Zenk J. et al. Submandibular sialoliths. Stone removal with organ preservation. HNO 2005; 53: 243-249
86 Ottaviani F. et al. Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy for salivary calculi in pediatric patients. Acta Otolaryngol 2001; 121: 873-876
87 Zenk J, Die IH. Sialolithiasis und deren Behandlung. Laryngo Rhino Otol 2001; Supplement: S115-S136
88 Zenk J. et al. The significance of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy in sialolithiasis therapy. HNO 2013; 61: 306-311
89 Koch M. et al. Combined endoscopic and transcutaneous approach for parotid gland sialolithiasis: indications, technique, and results. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2010; 142: 98-103
90 Zenk J, Koch M, Iro H. Extracorporeal and intracorporeal lithotripsy of salivary gland stones: basic investigations. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2009; 42: 1115-1137 Table of Contents
91 Witt RL. et al. Minimally invasive options for salivary calculi. Laryngoscope 2012; 122: 1306-1311
92 Iro H, Zenk J, Koch M. Modern concepts for the diagnosis and therapy of sialolithiasis. HNO 2010; 58: 211-217
93 McCormick ME, Bawa G, Shah RK. Idiopathic recurrent pneumoparotitis. Am J Otolaryngol 2013; 34: 180-182
94 Saunders HF. Wind parotitis. N Engl J Med 1973; 289: 698
95 Piette E, Walker RT. Pneumoparotid during dental treatment. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1991; 72: 415-417
96 Markowitz-Spence L. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 1973; 468-469
97 Chilla R, Meyfarth HO, Arglebe C. Surgical treatment of chronic parotitis (author’s transl). Arch Otorhinolaryngol 1982; 234: 53-63
98 Han S, Isaacson G. Recurrent pneumoparotid: cause and treatment. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2004; 131: 758-761
99 Rowell J. et al. Acute unilateral enlargement of the parotid gland immediately post craniotomy in a pediatric patient: a case report. Childs Nerv Syst 2010; 26: 1239-1242
100 Attas M, Sabawala PB, Keats AS. Acute transient sialadenopathy during induction of anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1968; 29: 1050-1052
101 Bonchek LI. Salivary gland enlargement during induction of anesthesia. JAMA 1969; 209: 1716-1718
102 Berker M. et al. Acute parotitis following sitting position neurosurgical procedures: review of five cases. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 2004; 16: 29-31
103 Tremblay V. et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial cervicofacial adenitis in children: epidemiologic study. J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2008; 37: 616-622
104 Haverkamp MH. et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection in children: a 2-year prospective surveillance study in the Netherlands. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 450-456
105 Lindeboom JA. et al. Surgical excision versus antibiotic treatment for nontuberculous mycobacterial cervicofacial lymphadenitis in children: a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 1057-1064
106 Harris RL. et al. Cervicofacial nontuberculous mycobacterium lymphadenitis in children: is surgery always necessary?. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2009; 73: 1297-1301
107 Iversen RH, Illum P. Cervicofacial nontuberculous mycobacterial lymphadenitis in children. Dan Med J 2012; 59: A4349
108 Flint D. et al. Cervical lymphadenitis due to non-tuberculous mycobacteria: surgical treatment and review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2000; 53: 187-194
109 Lindeboom JA. et al. Esthetic outcome of surgical excision versus antibiotic therapy for nontuberculous mycobacterial cervicofacial lymphadenitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009; 28: 1028-1030
110 Griffith DE. Therapy of nontuberculous mycobacterial disease. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2007; 20: 198-203
111 Haase G. et al. Mycobacterium lentiflavum: an etiologic agent of cervical lymphadenitis. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 1245-1246
112 Zeharia A. et al. Management of nontuberculous mycobacteria-induced cervical lymphadenitis with observation alone. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008; 27: 920-922
113 Jawahar MS. et al. Treatment of lymph node tuberculosis – a randomized clinical trial of two 6-month regimens. Trop Med Int Health 2005; 10: 1090-1098
114 Mehta D, Willging JP. Pediatric salivary gland lesions. Semin Pediatr Surg 2006; 15: 76-84
115 Rice DH. Chronic inflammatory disorders of the salivary glands. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 1999; 32: 813-818
116 Seifert G. Tumour-like lesions of the salivary glands. The new WHO classification. Pathol Res Pract 1992; 188: 836-846
117 Fowler CB, Brannon RB. Subacute necrotizing sialadenitis: report of 7 cases and a review of the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2000; 89: 600-609
118 Ylikontiola L. et al. Sialometaplasia of the soft palate in a 2-year-old girl. J Mich Dent Assoc 2010; 92: 38-40
119 Brannon RB, Fowler CB, Hartman KS. Necrotizing sialometaplasia. A clinicopathologic study of sixty-nine cases and review of the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1991; 72: 317-325
120 Seifert G. Aetiological and histological classification of sialadenitis. Pathologica 1997; 89: 7-17
121 A., v.R . Über chronische Erkrankungen der Parotis im Kindesalter. Jahrb Kinderheilk 161-173
122 Ussmuller J, Donath K. Clinical, histopathologic and immunohistochemical studies of chronic sialectatic parotitis in childhood and adolescence. Klin Padiatr 1999; 211: 165-171
123 Galili D, Marmary Y. Juvenile recurrent parotitis: clinicoradiologic follow-up study and the beneficial effect of sialography. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1986; 61: 550-556
124 Ericson S, Zetterlund B, Ohman J. Recurrent parotitis and sialectasis in childhood. Clinical, radiologic, immunologic, bacteriologic, and histologic study. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1991; 100: 527-535
125 Bailey H. Local infiltration of procaine hydrochloride solution combined with intravenous administration of pentothal sodium. J Int Coll Surg 1945; 8: 427-430
126 Maynard JD. Recurrent parotid enlargement. Br J Surg 1965; 52: 784-789
127 Hemenway WG. Chronic punctate parotitis. Laryngoscope 1971; 81: 485-509
128 Zou ZJ. et al. Recurrent parotitis in children. A report of 102 cases. Chin Med J (Engl) 1990; 103: 576-582
129 Konno A, Ito E. A study on the pathogenesis of recurrent parotitis in childhood. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol Suppl 1979; 88 (6 pt 4 Suppl 63) 1-20
130 Wittekindt C. et al. Chronic recurrent parotitis in childhood in monozygotic twins. Magnetic resonance sialography. HNO 2000; 48: 221-225
131 Reid E. et al. Autosomal dominant juvenile recurrent parotitis. J Med Genet 1998; 35: 417-419
132 Morales-Bozo I. et al. Association between the occurrence of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 in parotid saliva with the degree of parotid gland damage in juvenile recurrent parotitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2008; 106: 377-383
133 Wu AJ. et al. Modulation of MMP-2 (gelatinase A) and MMP-9 (gelatinase B) by interferon-gamma in a human salivary gland cell line. J Cell Physiol 1997; 171: 117-124
134 Bowling DM. et al. Intraductal tetracycline therapy for the treatment of chronic recurrent parotitis. Ear Nose Throat J 1994; 73: 262-274
135 Andrade RE, Hagen KA, Manivel JC. Distribution and immunophenotype of the inflammatory cell population in the benign lymphoepithelial lesion (Mikulicz’s disease). Hum Pathol 1988; 19: 932-941
136 Marsman WA, Sukhai RN. Recurrent parotitis and isolated IgG3 subclass deficiency. Eur J Pediatr 1999; 158: 684
137 Ericson S, Sjoback I. Salivary factors in children with recurrent parotitis. Part 2: Protein, albumin, amylase, IgA, lactoferrin lysozyme and kallikrein concentrations. Swed Dent J 1996; 20: 199-207
138 Ericson S, Sjoback I. Salivary factors in children with recurrent parotitis. Part 1: Salivary flow rate, buffering capacity and inorganic components. Swed Dent J 1996; 20: 121-132
139 Mandel L, Witek EL. Chronic parotitis: diagnosis and treatment. J Am Dent Assoc 2001; 132: 1707-1711 quiz 1727
140 Shimizu M. et al. Sonographic analysis of recurrent parotitis in children: a comparative study with sialographic findings. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1998; 86: 606-615
141 Iro H, Bozzato A, Zenk J. . Atlas of head and neck ultrasound. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart: ; 2012
142 Watkin GT, Hobsley M. Natural history of patients with recurrent parotitis and punctate sialectasis. Br J Surg 1986; 73: 745-748
143 Geterud A, Lindvall AM, Nylen O. Follow-up study of recurrent parotitis in children. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1988; 97 (4 pt 1) 341-346
144 Glasenapp GB. et al. Treatment of chronic recurrent parotitis by roentgen irradiation under scintigraphic control. Z Laryngol Rhinol Otol 1970; 49: 520-525
145 Diamant H, Enfors B. Treatment of Chronic Recurrent Parotitis. Laryngoscope 1965; 75: 153-160
146 Rettinger G, Stolte M, Baumler C. Elimination of major salivary glands by temporary medicamentous occlusion of the excretory ducts (author’s transl). HNO 1981; 29: 294-299
147 Maier H. et al. New concepts in the treatment of chronic recurrent parotitis. Arch Otorhinolaryngol 1985; 242: 321-328
148 Rubaltelli L. et al. Infantile recurrent sialectatic parotitis: the role of sonography and sialography in diagnosis and follow-up. Br. J Radiol 1987; 60: 1211-1214
149 Antoniades D. et al. Treatment of chronic sialadenitis by intraductal penicillin or saline. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2004; 62: 431-434
150 Shacham R. et al. Long-term experience with endoscopic diagnosis and treatment of juvenile recurrent parotitis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2009; 67: 162-167
151 Quenin S. et al. Juvenile recurrent parotitis: sialendoscopic approach. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2008; 134: 715-719
152 Capaccio P. et al. Modern management of juvenile recurrent parotitis. J Laryngol Otol 2012; 126: 1254-1260
153 Zenk J. et al. Chronic recurrent parotitis. HNO 2010; 58: 237-243
154 Vitali C. et al. Classification criteria for Sjogren’s syndrome: a revised version of the European criteria proposed by the American-European Consensus Group. Ann Rheum Dis 2002; 61: 554-558
155 Cimaz R. et al. Primary Sjogren syndrome in the paediatric age: a multicentre survey. Eur J Pediatr 2003; 162: 661-665
156 Bartunkova J. et al. Primary Sjogren’s syndrome in children and adolescents: proposal for diagnostic criteria. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1999; 17: 381-386
157 Houghton K. et al. Primary Sjogren’s syndrome in children and adolescents: are proposed diagnostic criteria applicable?. J Rheumatol 2005; 32: 2225-2232
158 Houghton KM. et al. Primary Sjogren’s syndrome in dizygotic adolescent twins: one case with lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia. J Rheumatol 2005; 32: 1603-1606
159 de Souza TR. et al. Juvenile Sjogren syndrome: distinctive age, unique findings. Pediatr Dent 2012; 34: 427-430
160 Nikitakis NG. et al. Primary Sjogren syndrome in childhood: report of a case and review of the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2003; 96: 42-47
161 Lieberman SM. Childhood Sjogren syndrome: insights from adults and animal models. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2013; 25: 651-657
162 McGuirt Jr WF, Whang C, Moreland W. The role of parotid biopsy in the diagnosis of pediatric Sjogren syndrome. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2002; 128: 1279-1281
163 Ramos-Casals M. et al. Treatment of primary Sjogren syndrome: a systematic review. JAMA 2010; 304: 452-460
164 Skalova S, Minxova L, Slezak R. Hypokalaemic Paralysis Revealing Sjogren’s Syndrome in a 16-Year Old Girl. Ghana Med J 2008; 42: 124-128
165 Vitali C. et al. Classification criteria for Sjogren’s syndrome: we actually need to definitively resolve the long debate on the issue. Ann Rheum Dis 2013; 72: 476-478
166 Gottenberg JE. et al. Efficacy of rituximab in systemic manifestations of primary Sjogren’s syndrome: results in 78 patients of the AutoImmune and Rituximab registry. Ann Rheum Dis 2013; 72: 1026-1031
167 Baum BJ. et al. Early responses to adenoviral-mediated transfer of the aquaporin-1 cDNA for radiation-induced salivary hypofunction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012; 109: 19403-19407
168 Xu J. et al. Allogeneic mesenchymal stem cell treatment alleviates experimental and clinical Sjogren syndrome. Blood 2012; 120: 3142-3151
169 Harrison JD. Modern management and pathophysiology of ranula: literature review. Head Neck 2010; 32: 1310-1320
170 Zhi K. et al. Management of infant ranula. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2008; 72: 823-826
171 Chow TL, Chan SW, Lam SH. Ranula successfully treated by botulinum toxin type A: report of 3 cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2008; 105: 41-42
172 Niccoli-Filho W, Morosolli AR. Surgical treatment of ranula with carbon dioxide laser radiation. Lasers Med Sci 2004; 19: 12-14
173 McGurk M. Management of the ranula. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2007; 65: 115-116
174 Ohta N. et al. Treatments of various otolaryngological cystic diseases by OK-4321: its indications and limitations. Laryngoscope 2010; 120: 2193-2196
175 Zhao YF. et al. Clinical review of 580 ranulas. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2004; 98: 281-287
176 Sigismund PE. et al. Management of ranula: 9 years’ clinical experience in pediatric and adult patients. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2013; 71: 38-544
177 Seifert G, Okabe H, Caselitz J. Epithelial salivary gland tumors in children and adolescents. Analysis of 80 cases (Salivary Gland Register 1965–1984). ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 1986; 48: 137-149
178 Cunningham MJ, Myers EN, Bluestone CD. Malignant tumors of the head and neck in children: a twenty-year review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 1987; 13: 279-292
179 Shapiro NL, Bhattacharyya N. Clinical characteristics and survival for major salivary gland malignancies in children. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2006; 134: 631-634
180 Deng R. et al. Salivary gland neoplasms in children. J Craniofac Surg 2013; 24: 511-513
181 Zeng D. et al. Production of chitosan used for flocculant in medium scale. Huan Jing Ke Xue 2002; 23: 62-65
182 Hockstein NG. et al. Pediatric submandibular triangle masses: a fifteen-year experience. Head Neck 2004; 26: 675-680
183 Bradley P, McClelland L, Mehta D. Paediatric salivary gland epithelial neoplasms. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 2007; 69: 137-145
184 Weber AL, Rahemtullah A, Ferry JA. Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma of the head and neck: clinical, pathologic, and imaging evaluation. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2003; 13: 371-392
185 Muenscher A. et al. Benign and malignant salivary gland diseases in children A retrospective study of 549 cases from the Salivary Gland Registry, Hamburg. Auris Nasus Larynx 2009; 36: 326-331
186 da Cruz Perez DE. et al. Salivary gland tumors in children and adolescents: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical study of fifty-three cases. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2004; 68: 895-902
187 Lee DH. et al. Clinical features of pediatric parotid tumors: 10-year experience of a single institute. Acta Otolaryngol 2013; 133: 1213-1218
188 Iro H. et al. Follow-up of parotid pleomorphic adenomas treated by extracapsular dissection. Head Neck 2013; 35: 788-793
189 Aro K. et al. Paediatric salivary gland cancer in Finland. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2012; 76: 1304-1307
190 Ellies M. et al. Tumors of the salivary glands in childhood and adolescence. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2006; 64: 1049-1058
191 Kupferman ME. et al. Outcomes of pediatric patients with malignancies of the major salivary glands. Ann Surg Oncol 2010; 17: 3301-3307
192 Orvidas LJ. et al. Pediatric parotid masses. Archives of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery 2000; 126: 177-184
193 Callender DL. et al. Salivary gland neoplasms in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1992; 118: 472-476
194 Ethunandan M. et al. Parotid neoplasms in children: experience of diagnosis and management in a district general hospital. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2003; 32: 373-377
195 Sultan I. et al. Salivary gland carcinomas in children and adolescents: a population-based study, with comparison to adult cases. Head Neck 2011; 33: 1476-1481
196 Ryan JT. et al. Primacy of surgery in the management of mucoepidermoid carcinoma in children. Head Neck 2011; 33: 1769-1773
197 Vedrine PO. et al. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of salivary glands in the pediatric age group: 18 clinical cases, including 11 second malignant neoplasms. Head Neck 2006; 28: 827-833
198 Rahbar R. et al. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the parotid gland in children: A 10-year experience. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2006; 132: 375-380
199 Galer C. et al. Minor salivary gland malignancies in the pediatric population. Head Neck 2012; 34: 1648-1651
200 Levine SB, Potsic WP. Acinic cell carcinoma of the parotid gland in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 1986; 11: 281-286
201 Strome M. Non-neoplastic salivary gland diseases in children. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 1977; 10: 391-398
202 White AK. Salivary gland disease in infancy and childhood: non-malignant lesions. J Otolaryngol 1992; 21: 422-428
203 Bozzato A. et al. Salivary gland biometry in female patients with eating disorders. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2008; 265: 1095-1102
204 Lloyd Faulconbridge RV. et al. Review of management of drooling problems in neurologically impaired children: a review of methods and results over 6 years at Chailey Heritage Clinical Services. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 2001; 26: 76-81
205 Nunn JH. Drooling: review of the literature and proposals for management. J Oral Rehabil 2000; 27: 735-743
206 Hillel AD, Miller R. Bulbar amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: patterns of progression and clinical management. Head Neck 1989; 11: 51-59
207 Lespargot A. et al. Swallowing disturbances associated with drooling in cerebral-palsied children. Dev Med Child Neurol 1993; 35: 298-304
208 Fischer RB. What to do in neuroleptic-induced sialorrhea. Psychiatr Prax 2001; 28: 249-250
209 Johnson H, King J, Reddihough DS. Children with sialorrhoea in the absence of neurological abnormalities. Child Care Health Dev 2001; 27: 591-602
210 Blasco PA. Management of drooling: 10 years after the Consortium on Drooling, 1990. Dev Med Child Neurol 2002; 44: 778-781
211 Allaire J. in AACPDM Annual Meeting. Toronto:
212 Brown C. in AACPDM Annual Meeting. Toronto: 2000
213 Harris MM, Dignam PF. A non-surgical method of reducing drooling in cerebral-palsied children. Dev Med Child Neurol 1980; 22: 293-299
214 Koheil R. et al. Biofeedback techniques and behaviour modification in the conservative remediation of drooling by children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 1987; 29: 19-26
215 Rapp D. Drool control: long-term follow-up. Dev Med Child Neurol 1980; 22: 448-453
216 McCracken A. Drool control and tongue thrust therapy for the mentally retarded. Am J Occup Ther 1978; 32: 79-85
217 Fischer-Brandies H, Avalle C, Limbrock GJ. Therapy of orofacial dysfunctions in cerebral palsy according to Castillo-Morales: first results of a new treatment concept. Eur J Orthod 1987; 9: 139-143
218 Limbrock GJ, Hoyer H, Scheying H. Drooling, chewing and swallowing dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy: treatment according to Castillo-Morales. ASDC J Dent Child 1990; 57: 445-451
219 Hoyer H, Limbrock GJ. Orofacial regulation therapy in children with Down syndrome, using the methods and appliances of Castillo-Morales. ASDC J Dent Child 1990; 57: 442-444
220 Limbrock GJ, Hoyer H, Scheying H. Regulation therapy by Castillo-Morales in children with Down syndrome: primary and secondary orofacial pathology. ASDC J Dent Child 1990; 57: 437-441
221 Talmi YP. et al. Reduction of salivary flow with Scopoderm TTS. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1988; 97: 128-130
222 Dettman CE. Suppression of salivation in wind-instrument players with scopolamine. N Engl J Med 1984; 310: 1396
223 Bothwell JE. et al. Botulinum toxin A as a treatment for excessive drooling in children. Pediatr Neurol 2002; 27: 18-22
224 Ellies M. et al. Successful management of drooling with botulinum toxin A in neurologically disabled children. Neuropediatrics 2002; 33: 327-330
225 Ellies M. et al. Botulinum toxin to reduce saliva flow: selected indications for ultrasound-guided toxin application into salivary glands. Laryngoscope 2002; 112: 82-86
226 Ellies M. et al. Blocking secretion of exocrine glands in the head-neck area by administration of botulinum toxin A. Therapy of a rare disease picture. HNO 2001; 49: 807-813
227 Giess R. et al. Injections of botulinum toxin A into the salivary glands improve sialorrhoea in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000; 69:: 121-123
228 Jongerius PH. et al. A systematic review for evidence of efficacy of anticholinergic drugs to treat drooling. Arch Dis Child 2003; 88: 911-914
229 Jongerius PH. et al. The treatment of drooling by ultrasound-guided intraglandular injections of botulinum toxin type A into the salivary glands. Laryngoscope 2003; 113: 107-111
230 Ekedahl C, Mansson I, Sandberg N. Swallowing disorders and drooling. JFORL J Fr Otorhinolaryngol Audiophonol Chir Maxillofac 1974; 23: 727-731
231 Ekedahl C, Mansson I, Sandberg N. Swallowing dysfunction in the brain-damaged with drooling. Acta Otolaryngol 1974; 78: 141-149
232 Ekedahl C. Surgical treatment of drooling. Acta Otolaryngol 1974; 77: 215-220
233 Ross JA. The function of the tympanic plexus as related to Frey’s syndrome. Laryngoscope 1970; 80: 1816-1833
234 Michel RG, Johnson KA, Patterson CN. Parasympathetic nerve section for control of sialorrhea. Arch Otolaryngol 1977; 103: 94-97
235 Dundas DF, Peterson RA. Surgical treatment of drooling by bilateral parotid duct ligation and submandibular gland resection. Plast Reconstr Surg 1979; 64: 47-51
236 Chang CJ, May-Kuen Wong aA. Intraductal laser photocoagulation of the bilateral parotid ducts for reduction of drooling in patients with cerebral palsy. Plast Reconstr Surg 2001; 107: 907-913
237 Wilkie TF. The problem of drooling in cerebral palsy: a surgical approach. Can J Surg 1967; 10: 60-67
238 Massengill Jr R. A follow-up investigation of patients who have had parotid duct transplantation surgery to control drooling. Ann Plast Surg 1979; 2: 205-208
239 Wilkie TF, Brody GS. The surgical treatment of drooling. A ten-year review. Plast Reconstr Surg 1977; 59: 791-797
240 Ozgenel GY, Ozcan M. Bilateral parotid-duct diversion using autologous vein grafts for the management of chronic drooling in cerebral palsy. Br J Plast Surg 2002; 55: 490-493
241 Crysdale WS. Management options for the drooling patient. Ear Nose Throat J. 1989; 68 820: 825-826, 829–830
242 Crysdale WS, White A. Submandibular duct relocation for drooling: a 10-year experience with 194 patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1989; 101: 87-92
243 Crysdale WS. et al. Management of drooling in individuals with neurodisability: a surgical experience. Dev Med Child Neurol 2001; 43: 379-383
244 Xie CM, Kubba H. Parotidectomy in children: indications and complications. J Laryngol Otol 2010; 124: 1289-1293
245 Wright GL. et al. Benign parotid diseases of childhood. Laryngoscope 1985; 95: 915-920
246 Ribeiro Kde C. et al. Epithelial salivary glands neoplasms in children and adolescents: a forty-four-year experience. Med Pediatr Oncol 2002; 39: 594-600
247 Malone B, Baker SR. Benign pleomorphic adenomas in children. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1984; 93 (3 pt 1) 210-214
248 Zenk J, Iro H, Klintworth N, Lell M. Diagnostic Imaging in Sialadenitis. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 2009; 9: 275-292