Key words
INCYPRO - peptidomimetics - protein engineering - protein–protein interactions - proteomimetics
- structure-based design
1
Introduction
Proteins have evolved to facilitate diverse cellular functions. For their function,
the interplay between the adoption of a defined structure and the possession of intrinsic
flexibility is of eminent importance.[1] The unique folding properties of proteins have stimulated a wide range of peptidomimetic
and proteomimetic research.[2] Here, lately, the interest in peptidomimetic molecules and their use as therapeutic
agents became evident.[3] In particular, when aiming for intracellular targets, the installation of sufficient
cellular uptake represents a major challenge. To guide the design process and to enable
their categorization, we have classified peptidomimetics (Class A–D, Figure [1]) based on their resemblance to natural peptides.[3b] This classification not only supports the assessment of the potential and limitations
of peptidomimetics in therapeutic settings but also offers a structured approach for
their development and optimization.
Figure 1 Overview of the peptidomimetic classification with helix mimetics serving as example.
Modifications are depicted in red.
Class A mimetics are characterized by moderate modifications, maintaining a high degree
of similarity to the original peptide sequence. The primary approach used for obtaining
Class A mimetics involves peptide macrocyclization. Further derivatization of Class
A peptidomimetics leads to Class B mimetics, which include a larger number of non-natural
amino acids and often tend to show higher resistance to proteolytic degradation.[2a] Class A and B mimetics exhibit relatively high similarity to peptides, usually rendering
their cellular uptake a limiting factor.[4] The defining characteristic of Class C mimetics is the use of small molecular scaffolds
to replace the entire peptide backbone. The design process is demanding given the
complexity and inherent flexibility of peptide structures. A limited number of Class
C mimetics have been studied in a cell-based context, with a focus on α-helix mimetics,
which tend to lose the selective binding characteristics of their parent peptide sequences.[5] Class D mimetics, identified for example through screening methods, offer a unique
approach by mimicking the functional mechanism of bioactive peptides without directly
imitating their side chain functionalities. However, library composition is an essential
factor when aiming for challenging protein targets that lack defined binding pockets.[6]
Our group played an active role in the development of Class A and Class B peptidomimetics
using both side chain-to-side chain as well as head-to-tail cyclization approaches.
This involved the stabilization of α-helices, β-sheets as well as irregular structural
motifs.[7] We have also explored the possibility of stabilizing small tertiary folds for the
targeting of proteins, which were not addressable with classic peptidomimetic approaches.[8] The idea of introducing chemical crosslinks to stabilize peptide conformations we
have then extended to the stabilization of entire protein domains (tertiary structures)[9] and protein complexes (quaternary structures),[10] resulting in the development of proteomimetic structures with abiotic topologies.
In this account, we summarize the efforts of our group towards the mimicry and stabilization
of peptide and protein structures with chemical biology and biotechnological applications.
2
Constraining the Conformation of Peptides
Inhibitors of Protein–Protein Interactions
An early example of a Class A peptidomimetic with a stabilized irregular secondary
structure was obtained through the macrocyclization of the 14-3-3 binding epitope
of the virulence factor of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, exoenzyme S (ESp, blue, Figure [2]). In collaboration with the group of Christian Ottmann and inspired by hydrocarbon
peptide stapling,[11] we have employed ring-closing olefin metathesis (RCM, Figure [2a]) to introduce a crosslink that interfaces the target protein 14-3-3, thereby simultaneously
constraining the peptide conformation and directly contributing to target interactions.[12] The development of these constrained peptides initially involved the testing of
different crosslink lengths and configurations using the 11-mer ESp peptide as a starting point.[7a] Two architectures were identified, one with an SS configuration (referring to the two αC crosslink atoms) using a 12-carbon atom crosslink
(βSS12, K
d = 41 nM, Figure [2b]) and another with an RS configuration using an 8-carbon atom crosslink (βRS8, K
d = 0.25 μM, Figure [2c]). Both mimetics exceed the binding affinity of the linear starting point (ESp, K
d = 1.1 μM).
These two scaffolds served as the starting point for subsequent studies. For instance,
we showed that the increased affinity of βSS12 over βRS8 is likely due to its increased flexibility in the bound state.[13] For βSS12, an in silico sequence maturation was carried out, resulting in Class B peptidomimetic 22 (green, Figure [2b]), which involved two non-proteogenic amino acids: l-(1-adamantyl)glycine (α) and l-γ-carboxyglutamic acid (γ), resulting in a further 2.7-fold increased affinity.[14] Furthermore, our efforts towards peptide miniaturization[15] used βRS8 as a starting point. Here, we noted the importance of the αC-substitution pattern
at the crosslinking amino acids. Especially, hydrogen substituents resulted in particularly
low affinity (more than 200-fold) relative to the best performing Et/Me pattern in
peptidomimetic 11 (yellow, Figure [2c]). In addition, we explored alternative crosslinking approaches, such as ring-closing
alkyne metathesis (RCAM), instead of RCM, which also resulted in a mimetic with a
high target affinity.[16]
Figure 2 Inhibitors of 14-3-3-protein interactions. (a) Synthesis of macrocyclic peptides
via ring-closing olefin metathesis (RCM) with subsequent double-bond reduction. Fmoc-ZS-OH is shown as example of an unnatural amino acid (Z = n + 3, number of atoms that contribute to crosslink). (b) Front (left) and side (right)
views of overlayed crystal structures of different 14-3-3 (gray surface) bound mimetics
derived from ESp (blue, PDB ID 4n7g): βSS12 (gold, PDB ID 4n84) and 22 (green, PDB ID 5jm4). The crosslinks as well as l-(1-adamantyl)glycine (α) and l-γ-carboxyglutamic acid (γ) are shown as balls and sticks.[7a]
[14] (c) Front (left) and side (right) views of overlayed crystal structures of different
14-3-3 (gray surface) bound mimetics derived from ESp (blue, PDB ID 4n7g): βRS8 (yellow, PDB ID 4n7y) and peptide 11 (pink, PDB ID 6rlz).[7a]
[15] Crosslinks and substituents are shown as balls and sticks.
Hydrocarbon-stapled peptides were first reported by Gregory Verdine and colleagues.[11d] They represent ClassA helix mimetics in which side-chain-to-side-chain crosslinks
are installed by RCM.[17] In addition, the crosslinking amino acids featured αC methylation, further supporting
the helical conformation.[18] In collaboration with the groups of Herbert Waldmann and Roger Goody, we generated
hydrocarbon-stapled peptides targeting small GTPases from the Rab family.[19] Here, we showed that it is possible to convert Rab-targeting epitopes characterized
by very low binding affinities (K
d > 100 μM) into Class A mimetics with one-digit micromolar affinity.[20] Furthermore, improved stability against protease degradation was achieved by including
two adjacent hydrocarbon staples.[21] In collaboration with the group of Alois Fürstner, we were able to form one of these
staples using RCM and the other one via alkyne metathesis, both occurring in a one-pot
reaction.[22]
Stabilized α-helices have also been used to generate peptidomimetic inhibitors derived
from the A-subunit of the trimeric transcription factor complex NF-Y.[23] Based on a previously reported crystal structure,[24] a 29-mer peptide of NF-YA was used as the initial NF-YB/C-targeting sequence (PBM). We performed a truncation study to identify the central 19-mer interaction motif,
which then served as the starting point for peptidomimetic design. Aiming for stabilization
of the central α-helix, hydrocarbon stapling with two different architectures including
i,i+4 and i,i+7 (2-C, green) was pursued; however, this resulted in only moderately increased binding
affinities (Figure [3a]). Unexpectedly, when stapled peptide 2-D was truncating N-terminally, this resulted in a 2.3-fold affinity increase. The substitution
of the N-terminal crosslink α-methyl group by hydrogen, providing mimetic 2-DN
, increased binding affinity by a factor of 10. Importantly, this methyl group did
not involve direct contacts with the NF-YB/C target. NMR studies suggest that the
initial α-methylation restricts the conformational freedom and forces 2-D into an all-α-helical confirmation, which results in the loss of favorable interactions
with NF-YB/C and therefore a loss in binding affinity. Later, we explored the impact
of flexibility in the bound state in more detail.[25] For a truncated version of peptide 2-DN
, crystal structures indicated at least two accessible conformations when bound to
NF-YB/C. This was further supported by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, overall
suggesting that flexibility in the bound state contributes to complex stability.
Figure 3 Inhibitors of NF-Y trimer assembly. (a) Superimposition of crystal structures of
PBM (blue, PDB ID: 6qmp), 2-C (green, PDB ID: 6qms), and 2-DN
(orange, PDB ID: 6qmq) bound to NF-YB/C (gray surface).[23] (b) Sequence of 2-DN
including the chemical structure of the central macrocycle.
In collaboration with AstraZeneca and the group of Herbert Waldmann, the helix-turn-helix
motif found in the TEAD binding epitope of VGL4[26] (blue, Figure [4], left) was stabilized.[8b] Since the individual helices did not provide sufficient affinity, the two-helix
arrangement was chosen as the starting point. This motif was stabilized using a lactam
bridge between the two helices, resulting in macrocycle 4E (orange, Figure [4], left). To evaluate the activity in cell-based assays, a cell-penetrating peptide
was attached, which indeed verified the anticipated modulation of the Hippo pathway.
This modulation was confirmed through analysis of mRNA target gene levels and cell
mobility.
Another therapeutically relevant protein targeted in our group is the oncogene β-catenin,
which serves as a central hub in the Wnt-signalling pathway[27] and showed high resistance towards targeting with small molecular scaffolds.[28] Our initial β-catenin-targeting efforts focused on improving the cellular uptake
of an earlier reported hydrocarbon-stapled peptide.[29]
[30] These sequence maturation efforts resulted in the substitution of arginines with
homo-arginine and the addition of a positively charged nuclear localization sequence.
The obtained Class B mimetic NLS-StAx-h exhibited robust cellular uptake and inhibition of the Wnt-signaling pathway in cell-based
assays.[31] Subsequently, we developed a novel β-catenin inhibitor based on a discontinuous
anti-parallel β-sheet originating from the protein E-cadherin (blue, Figure [4], right).[32] The epitope was first converted into a β-hairpin, which was then head-to-tail cyclized
providing macrocyclic peptide 12 (orange, Figure [4], right).[7b] To enhance cellular uptake, peptide 12 was converted into a bicyclic scaffold by introducing two cysteine residues that
were crosslinked using a biselectrophile. To identify a suitable arrangement, different
cysteine positions and biselectrophiles were tested, providing Class B mimetic A-b6, which demonstrated inhibition of Wnt signaling in a Wnt-responsive reporter gene
assay (IC
50 = 8 μM).[7b]
Figure 4 Inhibitors of protein–protein interactions. (Left) Overlayed crystal structures of
two TEAD monomers (gray surface) bound to VGL4 (blue, PDB ID: 4ln0)[26] and to macrocycle 4E (orange, PDB ID 6sba).[8b] (Right) Overlayed crystal structures of β-catenin (gray surface) bound to a fragment
of E-cadherin (blue, PDB ID 1i7x),[32] and to mimetic 12 (orange, PDB ID 7ar4).
RNA-Targeting Peptidomimetics
Peptide-derived molecules have also proven useful for targeting nucleic acids.[33] Aiming for the design of RNA-binding peptidomimetics, we used the viral protein
TAV2b as a starting point. TAV2b binds double-stranded RNA in a sequence-independent
manner using two adjacent α-helices that are connected via a short loop (blue, Figure
[5a]). TAV2b binds siRNA, thereby suppressing RNA interference, which affects the antiviral
response of plant cells.[34] Guided by a crystal structure of RNA-bound TAV2b, we designed and tested different
fragments regarding their RNA binding ability.[35] This resulted in the identification of 33-mer peptide wt33 binding a palindromic RNA duplex with moderate affinity (K
d = 1.2 μM). In the RNA-bound state, wt33 contains two helical interaction motifs that, however, were only structured upon
binding. To increase their α-helicity, we applied hydrocarbon stapling exploring different
architectures. Eventually, double-stapled peptide B3 with ca. 20-fold increased affinity (K
d = 0.07 μM) and robust cellular uptake was obtained. Interestingly, B3 also showed an affinity for miRNA-21 (miR21) and its precursor, pre-miR21. Notably,
B3 binding to pre-miR21 resulted in inhibition of miRNA maturation by the nuclease Dicer
in a biochemical assay (Figure [5b]).[35] Building on these findings, we developed environment-sensitive TAV2b-derived stapled
peptides that can serve as a general tool to stabilize double-stranded RNA and support
its cellular delivery. Using one of the two TAV2b helices, homo-dimeric, stapled peptide
2′-2′ was designed, which contained a disulfide bridge.[36] Dimer binding prolonged the lifetime of dsRNA in the medium and also promoted cellular
uptake. Importantly, stapled peptide 2′-2′ showed high affinity (K
d = 32 nM) for dsRNA only in its dimeric form, whereas the monomeric stapled peptide
exhibited only low affinity (Figure [5c]). This gave rise to the ability of the dimer to dissociate from RNA when exposed
to reducing conditions, as they can be found in the cytosol. Importantly, our observations
indicate that the system acts as a potential carrier for RNA by protecting it in the
bloodstream and releasing the RNA cargo in the cytosol.
Figure 5 RNA-targeting mimetics: (a) Crystal structure of TAV2b (blue, cartoon representation,
PDB ID: 2zi0) bound to palindromic dsRNA (gray).[34] Both helices (1 and 2) and the dimerization motif are indicated. (b) SimRNP model
of a complex containing pre-miR-21 (black/gray, cartoon representation) and three
33-mer peptide ligands (orange). Red spheres indicate the dicer cleavage sites. (c)
Cartoon of the homodimer derived from helix 1 in TAV2b including the sequence of 2′-2′ (O = 3-mercaptopropanoic acid, β = β-alanine). The homodimer binds double-stranded
RNA. Monomerization under reducing conditions leads to RNA release. (d) TAV2b-derived
peptide–DNA conjugate 1-A12, which binds single-stranded RNA. The chemical structure of the linker is shown.
The TAV2b-derived mimetics described above do not exhibit pronounced RNA sequence
specificity. To facilitate sequence-specific binding of RNA, we designed peptide–DNA
hybrids using a truncated version of wt33 and 10- to 12-mer DNA sequences that were complementary to a single-stranded RNA
target (Figure [5d]).[37] Notably, we observed 100-fold increased binding affinity to miR-21 with the DNA–peptide
conjugate 1-A12 (K
d = 4 nM) when compared with the non-conjugated system (apparent K
d ca. 0.4 μM). For these hybrids, we confirmed sequence-specific binding allowing the
execution of selective RNA-templated ligations using a strain-promoted click reaction.[37] Compared with the untemplated reaction, a rate acceleration in the range of two
orders of magnitude was achieved.
3
Peptide-Based Covalent Protein Modifiers
The use of biocompatible reactions for the covalent modification of proteins is often
limited by selectivity issues due to the presence of multiple potential target residues
on the protein surface. To address this limitation, we employed proximity-induced
reactions[38] that allowed the targeting of certain surface-exposed residues.[8a]
[39] Our first example of a peptide-directed protein modification used the KIX domain
of the CREB binding protein (CBP)[40] as a template for a ligation reaction between two native peptide ligands that bind
the KIX domain simultaneously.[39b] One ligand harbored a cysteine while the second presented an appropriately aligned
electrophile. Using maleimide as an electrophile, KIX facilitated a templated ligation
reaction with a rate acceleration of more than 6000-fold. In this setup, the ligation
product exhibited high affinity for the template, preventing reaction turnover and
thereby catalytic activity. Using the same trimeric complex but employing a transfer
reaction, it was then indeed possible to achieve catalytic turnover (maximum turnover
number of 16).[39a]
We also used peptide ligands for the covalent modification and modulation of target
proteins. Initial studies used the KIX domain and a KIX-binding motif of mixed-lineage
leukemia (MLL). Aiming at the covalent attachment of different labels to the KIX domain,
the MLL peptide was equipped with a cysteine-reactive group (chloroacetamide) and
a tag (Figure [6a]). To study the structural requirements for proximity-induced protein modification,
KIX variants with differently positioned cysteines were generated that exhibit varying
distances to the electrophile-bearing N-terminus of the peptide (Figure [6b]).[39e] As an additional parameter, different polyethylene glycol (PEG) spacers were installed
between the electrophile and the peptide N-terminus. Subsequently, the reaction rates
of all combinations of KIX variants and modified peptides were assessed. The best
performing combination (KIX C638 and peptide with PEG2 linker) was then tested in cell-based experiments using a peptide equipped with a
membrane anchor (cationic peptide with fatty acid modification). Microinjection of
this probe (Cl-9L-MA) into HeLa cells expressing a fluorescently tagged KIX C638 domain resulted in translocation
of this target protein to intracellular membranes. This was the first example of an
intracellularly conjugated localization signal and it highlights the potential and
selectivity of proximity-induced reactions.
Figure 6 Peptide-based modifiers of proteins. (a) Schematic overview of proximity-induced
protein modification reactions. (b) NMR structure (PDB ID: 2lxs) of the KIX-domain
of CBP (P, white, cartoon representation), with peptide ligand L derived from MLL (orange,
cartoon representation, sphere = N-terminus).[40b] Cysteine substitutions (red) were individually introduced. (c) Overlay of crystal
structure of peptide 24 (blue, PDB ID 6h90) bound to FtsQ (white, surface representation) and MD-derived
binding poses of proteomimetic 24f (orange, crosslinks are in stick representation).[41] FtsQ lysine residues (red) near the binding site and crosslink in 24f are highlighted.[8a]
In collaboration with the group of Joen Luirink, we designed electrophile-modified
peptides with a covalent mode of action to inhibit interactions between bacterial
membrane proteins. Such peptide-based covalent inhibitors have recently gained increasing
attention, in particular, when pursuing challenging target proteins.[42] To interfere with the interaction between the bacterial transmembrane proteins FtsQ
and FtsB, which are both part of the divisome complex, we designed peptidomimetic
ligands that target the periplasmic domain of FtsQ using an epitope of FtsB (peptide
24, blue, Figure [6c]) as the starting point.[41] First, the small tertiary structure adopted in the FtsQ-bound state of peptide 24 was stabilized via a hydrocarbon crosslink replicating a salt bridge between the
α-helix and a neighboring loop. The resulting proteomimetic 24f shows good affinity for FtsQ (K
d = 0.45 μM) yet negligible antibiotic activity even in bacterial strains with a leaky
outer membrane to promote periplasmic uptake. To further support target engagement
and periplasmic uptake, the peptide was truncated and equipped with a covalent warhead
targeting FtsQ lysine K293 in proximity (green, Figure [6c]).[8a] After extensive optimization efforts, we obtained the 17-mer covalent inhibitor
17fα, which showed activity on clinical isolates of Escherichia coli strain when combined with a potentiating stapled peptide.[8a]
[43]
4
Chemical Protein Engineering
Stabilization of Protein Tertiary Structure
Many biotechnological applications require protein engineering to increase the stability
of utilized proteins. Classic strategies involve protein sequence optimization via
consensus-based mutagenesis, directed evolution, or computational approaches.[44] As an alternative, protein macrocyclization approaches have evolved as an appealing
strategy to increase the stability of proteins towards thermal and chemical stress.[45] Inspired by bicyclic peptides,[46] we developed the in situ cyclization of proteins (INCYPRO), which uses triselectrophilic agents to crosslink
three spatially aligned cysteine residues within a protein (Figure [7a]).[9] The protein cysteine variants are designed in a computational, structure-based process
aiming for an arrangement of cysteine side chains that facilitate efficient crosslinking
and structure stabilization. Using the KIX domain as a model system, a variety of
crosslinkers were investigated (Figure [7b]), revealing a direct correlation between crosslink hydrophobicity and stabilizing
effect. While all crosslinked KIX versions showed increased thermal stability, the
most hydrophilic crosslink (Ae2) exhibited the highest stabilizing effect (ΔT
m = 29 °C) and the most hydrophobic (Bz1) stabilized KIX the least (ΔT
m = 19 °C). Crosslink flexibility did not appear to influence protein stability.
Figure 7 (a) In situ cyclization of proteins (INCYPRO) utilizes three spatially aligned and
solvent-exposed cysteines that are reacted with a crosslinker composed of a C
3-symmetric core structure (Y) bearing three electrophilic groups (El).[9] (b) Examples of C
3-symmetric core structures (Y, top) and electrophilic groups (El, bottom).[47] (c) Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation-derived structures of INCYPRO-crosslinked
Sortase xS11 (gray: protein, red: crosslink).[48]
Transpeptidase Sortase A (SrtA) and its activity-enhanced version 8M were also stabilized
using INCYPRO (Figure [7c]).[9]
[48] Both INCYPRO-stabilized variants (S7-t1 and xS11) showed considerably higher thermal stability than their parent enzymes (ΔT
m = 11 and 12 °C, respectively). Importantly, each INCYPRO variant showed enzymatic
activity comparable to their parents SrtA and 8M, respectively. Under elevated temperature
and in the presence of chemical denaturants such as guanidine hydrochloride (GuHCl),
the crosslinked versions, however, exhibited considerably higher activity than their
linear counterparts.[48] For example, this allowed the labeling of modified α-synuclein under the denaturing
conditions (1 M GuHCl) required for solubilizing its aggregated form.[9]
Stabilization of Quaternary Structure
The stabilization of native protein complexes (quaternary structures) is particularly
challenging due to the complexity of involved inter- and intramolecular interactions.
As a first example of an INCYPRO-based stabilization of a protein complex, we chose
Pseudomonas fluorescence esterase (PFE). PFE forms a homotimeric complex and the introduction of a single
cysteine results in three cysteines per protein complex. We introduced one cysteine
(per monomer) on each phase of the protein trimer both individually (variants p2 and p3) and in combination (p4). In all cases, we obtained efficient crosslinking when using an iodoacetamide-based
triselectrophile. Notably, for the trimer of p4, this resulted in the conjugation of six sites, in three different protein monomers
by two crosslinkers (Figure [8a]). For the resulting covalently locked trimer p43Ta2
, a crystal structure was obtained verifying the expected overall structure and crosslinking
sites (Figure [8b]).[49] Among the three INCYPRO-stabilized variants, this bicyclic version of PFE showed
the highest increase in thermal stability (ΔT
m = 8 °C). Most importantly, p43Ta2
exhibited a reduced tendency towards aggregation and considerably increased activity
under chemical stress. For example, at 1.5 M GuHCl, wt PFF was almost inactive, whereas
p43Ta2
still performed at 15% of its initial activity. Importantly, crosslinking also conveyed
extreme longevity, with p43Ta2
exhibiting full activity after more than three weeks of storage in PBS at 50 °C,
while wt PFE showed <10% activity after 5 days. Subsequently, INCYPRO was applied
to four additional homotrimeric complexes (Figure [8c]), all of which exhibited increased thermal stability (ΔT
m = 6–39 °C).[49]
Figure 8 Stabilization of quaternary structures: (a) Concept of protein complex bicyclization
using INCYPRO. (b) Crystal structure (PDB ID 1va4) of homotrimeric PFE, p43Ta2
(gray, PDB ID 8pi1, stick representation) with Ta4 (red).[49]
[50] (c) Examples of homotrimeric proteins stabilized with INCYPRO. Crystal structures
of trimeric parent complexes are shown indicating the crosslinking sites (I43Ta2
PDB ID 3fnj; a43Ta2
, PDB ID 3c6v; b43Ta2
PDB ID 1vmf; e43Ta2
PDB ID 5c9g).[49]
5
Conclusions
The adoption of a defined three-dimensional structure is a central aspect of peptide
and protein function. Macrocyclization represents an appealing approach to restrict
the conformational freedom of these oligomers and thereby stabilize certain three-dimensional
structures.[9]
[45] The variation of macrocyclization scaffolds also provides a means of fine-tuning
the degree of flexibility, which is an important aspect of the design process. Chemical
crosslinking strategies have given rise to novel peptidomimetic and proteomimetic
molecules with enhanced binding characteristics as well as increased resistance to
thermal and chemical stress. Constraining the structure of peptide-based scaffolds
led to high-affinity binders, resistance to proteolytic degradation, and increased
cellular uptake. Although affinity maturation of peptidomimetic structures is a well-established
concept, some targets require the stabilization of larger structural motifs and/or
the use of a covalent mode of action to achieve meaningful inhibitory activities.[42] Notably, the improvement of cellular uptake via conformational constraints is less
understood and often requires extensive optimization efforts to achieve sufficient
uptake. Overall, peptidomimetics have been used to modulate many levels of biological
regulation, targeting proteins as well as nucleic acids.[51] We have also utilized the concept of macrocyclization beyond secondary structures
to stabilize entire protein tertiary and quaternary structures. Using a semi-synthetic
approach, we have established the in situ cyclization of proteins (INCYPRO), a chemical protein engineering approach that alters
protein topology, thereby reducing the tendency of a protein to unfold and aggregate.
Taken together, we have developed a broad range of macrocyclization strategies to
stabilize the structure of protein-derived molecules ranging from short macrocyclic
peptides (MW < 1000 g/mol) to large protein complexes (MW > 100.000 g/mol). The various
approaches discussed in this account highlight the potential of the structure-based
design of peptidomimetics and proteomimetics, and show how such molecules can contribute
to tackling central challenges in diverse fields such as chemical biology, biotechnology,
and drug discovery.
