Download PDF
Int J Sports Med
DOI: 10.1055/a-2595-3199
Physiology & Biochemistry

Distance Capacity Above the Critical Speed and Speed Reserves: are they Related?

Lucas Vecchia Lanzarini 
1   Physical Effort Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
,
Fernando Klitzke Borszcz 
1   Physical Effort Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
,
Isadora Dalla Lana 
1   Physical Effort Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
,
Tiago Turnes 
1   Physical Effort Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
,
Thiago Pereira Ventura 
1   Physical Effort Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
,
Kerry McGawley 
2   Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
,
Ricardo Dantas de Lucas 
1   Physical Effort Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
Also available at
   Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

The aim of this study was to correlate the anaerobic speed reserve and the maximal speed reserve with the distance capacity above the critical speed (D′), derived from four different mathematical models, in a group of endurance runners. Twenty-two runners performed an incremental treadmill test to exhaustion, an all-out 40-m sprint and three time trials (800, 1,500 and 3,000 m) on an outdoor running track to determine an anaerobic speed reserve, a maximal speed reserve and D′. D′ was determined using linear distance–time (D′linear d–t), linear velocity–time (D′linear 1/t), 2-parameter hyperbolic (D′2-hyp) and 3-parameter hyperbolic (D′3-hyp) models. A high correlation was observed between the anaerobic speed reserve and D′linear 1/t (r=0.77; p<0.001), while moderate correlations were observed between the anaerobic speed reserve and D′linear d–t (r=0.69; p<0.001) and D′2-hyp (r=0.63; p<0.003). The anaerobic speed reserve was not significantly correlated with D′3-hyp. High correlations were detected between the maximal speed reserve and D′linear 1/t, D′linear d–t and D′2-hyp (r=0.74 to 0.76; p<0.001) and a moderate correlation was detected between the maximal speed reserve and D′3-hyp (r=0.58; p=0.01). These moderate- to high correlations with D′, especially when derived from models using two parameters, suggest the existence of similar mechanisms underpinning the variables.

Keywords

anaerobic capacity - anaerobic speed reserve - D′ - maximal speed reserve


Publication History

Received: 31 January 2025

Accepted: 25 April 2025

Accepted Manuscript online:
25 April 2025

Article published online:
24 June 2025

© 2025. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Oswald-Hesse-Straße 50, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany

 

  • References

  • 1 Black MI, Jones AM, Blackwell JR. et al. Muscle metabolic and neuromuscular determinants of fatigue during cycling in different exercise intensity domains. J Appl Physiol 2017; 122: 446-459
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 2 Sandford GN, Laursen PB, Buchheit M.. Anaerobic Speed/Power Reserve and Sport Performance: Scientific Basis, Current Applications and Future Directions. Sports Med 2021; 51: 2017-2028
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 3 Iannetta D, Zhang J, Murias JM, Aboodarda SJ.. Neuromuscular and perceptual mechanisms of fatigue accompanying task failure in response to moderate-, heavy-, severe-, and extreme-intensity cycling. J Appl Physiol 2022; 133: 323-334
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 4 Bundle MW, Hoyt RW, Weyand PG.. High-speed running performance: a new approach to assessment and prediction. J Appl Physiol 2003; 95: 1955-1962
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 5 Ventura TP, Borszcz FK, Antunes D, Caputo F, Turnes T.. Prediction of Exercise Tolerance in the Severe and Extreme Intensity Domains by a Critical Power Model. J Hum Kinet 2023; 89: 113-122
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 6 Bassett DR, Howley ET.. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 70-84
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 7 Gastin PB.. Energy System Interaction and Relative Contribution During Maximal Exercise. Sports Med 2001; 31: 725-741
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 8 Green S, Dawson B.. Measurement of Anaerobic Capacities in Humans: Definitions, Limitations and Unsolved Problems. Sports Med 1993; 15: 312-327
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 9 Nummela A, Alberts M, Rijntjes RP, Luhtanen P, Rusko H.. Reliability and Validity of the Maximal Anaerobic Running Test. Int J Sports Med 1996; 17 Suppl 2: S97-S102
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 10 Haugen T, Paulsen G, Seiler S, Sandbakk Ø. New Records in Human Power. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2018; 13: 678-686
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 11 Blondel N, Berthoin S, Billat V, Lensel G.. Relationship Between Run Times to Exhaustion at 90, 100, 120, and 140% of V̇O2max and Velocity Expressed Relatively to Critical Velocity and Maximal Velocity. Int J Sports Med 2001; 22: 27-33
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 12 Basset FA, Chouinard R, Boulay MR.. Training Profile Counts for Time-to-Exhaustion Performance. Can J Appl Physiol 2003; 28: 654-666
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 13 Weyand PG, Bundle MW.. Energetics of high-speed running: integrating classical theory and contemporary observations. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2005; 288: R956-R965
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 14 Julio UF, Panissa VLG, Paludo AC, Alves ED, Campos F, Franchini E.. Use of the anaerobic speed reserve to normalize the prescription of high-intensity interval exercise intensity. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 20: 166-173
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 15 Sutcliffe DP, Kramer M.. The association between force–velocity profiles and the parameters from the 3-min all-out running test in university level soccer players. Sport Sci Health 2024; Ahead of Print 1-10
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 16 Kramer M, Thomas EJ, Thomas EJ, Van Aswegen M.. Functional Speed Reserve as a Proxy for the Anaerobic Speed Reserve Using the Critical Speed Concept. Ann Appl Sport Sci 2021; 9: 1-7
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 17 De Lucas RD, De Souza KM, Costa VP, Grossl T, Guglielmo LGA.. Time to exhaustion at and above critical power in trained cyclists: The relationship between heavy and severe intensity domains. Sci Sports 2013; 28: e9-e14
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 18 Poole DC, Burnley M, Vanhatalo A, Rossiter HB, Jones AM.. Critical Power: An Important Fatigue Threshold in Exercise Physiology. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2016; 48: 2320-2334
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 19 Chorley A, Lamb KL.. The Application of Critical Power, the Work Capacity above Critical Power (W′), and Its Reconstitution: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence and Implications for Cycling Training Prescription. Sports 2020; 8: 123
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 20 Dekerle J, De Souza KM, De Lucas RD, Guglielmo LG, Greco CC, Denadai BS.. Exercise Tolerance Can Be Enhanced through a Change in Work Rate within the Severe Intensity Domain: Work above Critical Power Is Not Constant. PLoS One 2015; 10: e0138428
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 21 Moritani T, Nagata A, Devries HA, Muro M.. Critical power as a measure of physical work capacity and anaerobic threshold. Ergonomics 1981; 24: 339-350
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 22 Souza KM, De Lucas RD, Do Nascimento Salvador PC. et al. Maximal power output during incremental cycling test is dependent on the curvature constant of the power–time relationship. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2015; 40: 895-898
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 23 Murgatroyd SR, Wylde LA.. The power–duration relationship of high-intensity exercise: from mathematical parameters to physiological mechanisms. J Physiol 2011; 589: 2443-2445
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 24 De Souza KM, Dekerle J, Salvador PC. et al. Rate of utilization of a given fraction of W ′ (the curvature constant of the power–duration relationship) does not affect fatigue during severe-intensity exercise. Exp Physiol 2016; 101: 540-548
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 25 Ortiz JG, Teixeira AS, Mohr PA. et al. The anaerobic speed reserve of high-level soccer players: a comparison based on the running speed profile among and within playing positions. Hum Mov 2018; 2018: 65-72
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 26 Sandford GN, Allen SV, Kilding AE, Ross A, Laursen PB.. Anaerobic Speed Reserve: A Key Component of Elite Male 800-m Running. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14: 501-508
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 27 Jiménez-Reyes P, Cuadrado-Peñafiel V, Párraga-Montilla JA, Romero-Franco N, Casado A.. Anaerobic Speed Reserve, Sprint Force–Velocity Profile, Kinematic Characteristics, and Jump Ability among Elite Male Speed- and Endurance-Adapted Milers. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19: 1447
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 28 Bok D, Gulin J, Škegro D, Šalaj S, Foster C.. Comparison of anaerobic speed reserve and maximal aerobic speed methods to prescribe short format high-intensity interval training. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2023; 33: 1638-1647
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 29 Støren Ø, Helgerud J, Johansen J-M, Gjerløw LE, Aamlid A, Støa EM. Aerobic and Anaerobic Speed Predicts 800-m Running Performance in Young Recreational Runners. Front Physiol 2021; 12: 672141
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 30 Haugen T, Sandbakk Ø, Enoksen E, Seiler S, Tønnessen E.. Crossing the Golden Training Divide: The Science and Practice of Training World-Class 800- and 1500-m Runners. Sports Med 2021; 51: 1835-1854
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 31 Haugen T, Sandbakk Ø, Seiler S, Tønnessen E.. The Training Characteristics of World-Class Distance Runners: An Integration of Scientific Literature and Results-Proven Practice. Sports Med Open 2022; 8: 46
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 32 Jones AM, Vanhatalo A.. The ‘Critical Power’ Concept: Applications to Sports Performance with a Focus on Intermittent High-Intensity Exercise. Sports Med 2017; 47: 65-78
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 33 Raimundo JAG, De Aguiar RA, Lisbôa FD, Ribeiro G, Caputo F.. Modeling the expenditure and reconstitution of distance above critical speed during two swimming interval training sessions. Front Physiol 2022; 13: 952818
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 34 Bellinger P, Derave W, Lievens E. et al. Determinants of Performance in Paced and Maximal 800-m Running Time Trials. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53: 2635-2644
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 35 Pettitt RW.. Applying the Critical Speed Concept to Racing Strategy and Interval Training Prescription. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2016; 11: 842-847
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 36 Kirby BS, Winn BJ, Wilkins BW, Jones AM.. Interaction of exercise bioenergetics with pacing behavior predicts track distance running performance. J Appl Physiol 2021; 131: 1532-1542
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 37 Bull AJ, Housh TJ, Johnson GO, Rana SR.. Physiological responses at five estimates of critical velocity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 102: 711-720
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 38 Bull AJ, Housh TJ, Johnson GO, Perry SR.. Effect of mathematical modeling on the estimation of critical power. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 526-30
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 39 Gaesser GA, Carnevale TJ, Garfinkel A, Walter DO, Womack CJ.. Estimation of critical power with nonlinear and linear models. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 1430-1438
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 40 Dalamitros AA, Fernandes RJ, Toubekis AG, Manou V, Loupos D, Kellis S.. Is Speed Reserve Related to Critical Speed and Anaerobic Distance Capacity in Swimming?. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 29: 1830-1836
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 41 McKay AKA, Stellingwerff T, Smith ES. et al. Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17: 317-331
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 42 Howley ET, Bassett DR, Welch HG.. Criteria for maximal oxygen uptake: review and commentary. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 1292-301
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 43 Borg GA.. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982; 14: 377-381
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 44 Billat LV, Koralsztein JP.. Significance of the velocity at VO2max and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports Med 1996; 22: 90-108
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 45 de Lucas RD, Dittrich N, Junior RB. et al. Is the critical running speed related to the intermittent maximal lactate steady state?. J Sports Sci Med 2012; 11: 89-94
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 46 Morton RH.. The critical power and related whole-body bioenergetic models. Eur J Appl Physiol 2006; 96: 339-354
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 47 Housh TJ, Cramer JT, Bull AJ, Johnson GO, Housh DJ.. The effect of mathematical modeling on critical velocity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 84: 469-475
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 48 Mukaka MM.. Statistics Corner: A guide to appropriate use of Correlation coefficient in medical research. Malawi Med J 2012; 24: 69-71
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 49 Hopkins WG, Marshall SW, Batterham AM, Hanin J.. Progressive Statistics for Studies in Sports Medicine and Exercise Science. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2009; 41: 3-13
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 50 Vanhatalo A, Jones AM, Burnley M.. Application of Critical Power in Sport. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2011; 6: 128-136
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 51 Barstow TJ, Jones AM, Nguyen PH, Casaburi R.. Influence of muscle fiber type and pedal frequency on oxygen uptake kinetics of heavy exercise. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81: 1642-1650
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 52 Pringle JS, Doust JH, Carter H. et al. Oxygen uptake kinetics during moderate, heavy and severe intensity “submaximal” exercise in humans: the influence of muscle fibre type and capillarisation. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 89: 289-300
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 53 Vanhatalo A, Black MI, DiMenna FJ. et al. The mechanistic bases of the power–time relationship: muscle metabolic responses and relationships to muscle fibre type. J Physiol 2016; 594: 4407-4423
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 54 Abernethy PJ, Thayer R, Taylor AW.. Acute and Chronic Responses of Skeletal Muscle to Endurance and Sprint Exercise: A Review. Sports Med 1990; 10: 365-389
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 55 Mitchell EA, Martin NRW, Bailey SJ, Ferguson RA.. Critical power is positively related to skeletal muscle capillarity and type I muscle fibers in endurance-trained individuals. J Appl Physiol 2018; 125: 737-745
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 56 Lievens E, Bellinger P, Van Vossel K. et al. Muscle Typology of World-Class Cyclists across Various Disciplines and Events. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53: 816-824
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 57 Schiaffino S, Reggiani C.. Fiber Types in Mammalian Skeletal Muscles. Physiol Rev 2011; 91: 1447-1531
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 58 Beattie K, Kenny IC, Lyons M, Carson BP.. The Effect of Strength Training on Performance in Endurance Athletes. Sports Med 2014; 44: 845-865
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 59 Paavolainen L, Häkkinen K, Hämäläinen I, Nummela A, Rusko H.. Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1527-1533
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 60 Denadai BS, Greco CC.. Can the Critical Power Model Explain the Increased Peak Velocity/Power During Incremental Test After Concurrent Strength and Endurance Training?. J Strength Cond Res 2017; 31: 2319-2323
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 61 Sawyer BJ, Stokes DG, Womack CJ. et al. Strength Training Increases Endurance Time to Exhaustion During High-Intensity Exercise Despite No Change in Critical Power. J Strength Cond Res 2014; 28: 601-609
    Search in Google Scholar