Subscribe to RSS
DOI: 10.1055/a-2617-6856
The Effect of Velocity-Based Training on Inducing Postactivation Performance Enhancement

Abstract
This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effect of velocity-based training (VBT) conditioning activities (CA) on subsequent athletic performance and explore how different CA types, velocity loss (VL) thresholds, loads, sets, participants, and rest intervals influence postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE). Six electronic databases were searched. Nine studies were included, reporting 18 effect sizes and comprising 152 participants. We assessed pre- and posttest differences using meta-analysis, conducted subgroup analyses to identify potential moderating factors, and employed nonlinear meta-regression to explore the relationship between rest intervals and the PAPE effect. The results showed that VBT-CA significantly improved athletic performance. Subgroup analyses showed no significant differences; nevertheless, bench press-type CA, CA with VL≤10%, load≥80% one-repetition maximum (1RM), single-set CA, and athlete population exhibited a trend toward larger PAPE effects. Between 5.77 and 12.8 minutes after VBT-CA, a significant PAPE effect was indicated by the meta-regression results, with the optimal time point being 8.96 minutes. Our study suggests that VBT-CA can effectively induce the PAPE effect. Individuals seeking to improve their athletic performance could consider performing a single set of CA with load≥80% 1RM, VL≤10%, 5.8–12.8 minutes before the explosive activity.
Publication History
Received: 27 February 2025
Accepted after revision: 20 May 2025
Accepted Manuscript online:
21 May 2025
Article published online:
26 June 2025
© 2025. Thieme. All rights reserved.
Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Oswald-Hesse-Straße 50, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany
-
References
- 1 Cuenca-Fernández F, Smith IC, Jordan MJ. et al. Nonlocalized postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) effects in trained athletes: a pilot study. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2017; 42: 1122-1125
- 2 Botelho SY, Cander L. Post-tetanic potentiation before and during ischemia intact human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 1953; 6: 221-228
- 3 Hughes JR. Post-tetanic potentiation. Physiol Rev 1958; 38: 91-113
- 4 Vandervoort AA, Quinlan J, McComas AJ. Twitch potentiation after voluntary contraction. Exp Neurol 1983; 81: 141-152
- 5 Prieske O, Behrens M, Chaabene H, Granacher U, Maffiuletti NA. Time to differentiate postactivation “potentiation” from “performance enhancement” in the strength and conditioning community. Sports Med 2020; 50: 1559-1565
- 6 Sale DG. Postactivation potentiation: role in human performance. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2002; 30: 138-143
- 7 Crewther BT, Kilduff LP, Cook CJ, Middleton MK, Bunce PJ, Yang GZ. The acute potentiating effects of back squats on athlete performance. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25: 3319-3325
- 8 Dobbs WC, Tolusso DV, Fedewa MV, Esco MR. Effect of postactivation potentiation on explosive vertical jump: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 33: 2009-2018
- 9 Turner AP, Bellhouse S, Kilduff LP, Russell M. Postactivation potentiation of sprint acceleration performance using plyometric exercise. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 29: 343-350
- 10 Chen Y, Su Q, Yang J. et al. Effects of rest interval and training intensity on jumping performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis investigating post-activation performance enhancement. Front Physiol 2023; 14: 1202789
- 11 Krzysztofik M, Wilk M, Stastny P, Golas A. Post-activation performance enhancement in the bench press throw: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Physiol 2020; 11: 598628
- 12 Enoka RM, Duchateau J. Muscle fatigue: what, why and how it influences muscle function. J Physiol 2008; 586: 11-23
- 13 Hughes LJ, Banyard HG, Dempsey AR, Peiffer JJ, Scott BR. Using load-velocity relationships to quantify training-induced fatigue. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 33: 762-773
- 14 Mann JB, Bryant KR, Johnstone B, Ivey PA, Sayers SP. Effect of physical and academic stress on illness and injury in division 1 college football players. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30: 20-25
- 15 Souissi N, Chtourou H, Aloui A. et al. Effects of time-of-day and partial sleep deprivation on short-term maximal performances of judo competitors. J Strength Cond Res 2013; 27: 2473-2480
- 16 Orange ST, Metcalfe JW, Robinson A, Applegarth MJ, Liefeith A. Effects of in-season velocity-versus percentage-based training in academy rugby league players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 15: 554-561
- 17 Weakley J, Mann B, Banyard H. et al. Velocity-based training: From theory to application. Strength Cond J 2021; 43: 31-49
- 18 Jukic I, Castilla AP, Ramos AG, Van Hooren B, McGuigan MR, Helms ER. The acute and chronic effects of implementing velocity loss thresholds during resistance training: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and critical evaluation of the literature. Sports Med 2023; 53: 177-214
- 19 Pareja-Blanco F, Alcazar J, Cornejo-Daza PJ. et al. Effects of velocity loss in the bench press exercise on strength gains, neuromuscular adaptations, and muscle hypertrophy. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2020; 30: 2154-2166
- 20 Banyard HG, Tufano JJ, Weakley J, Wu S, Jukic I, Nosaka K. Superior changes in jump, sprint, and change-of-direction performance but not maximal strength following 6 weeks of velocity-based training compared with 1-repetition-maximum percentage-based training. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16: 232-242
- 21 Finlay MJ, Bridge CA, Greig M, Page RM. Upper-body post-activation performance enhancement for athletic performance: a systematic review with meta-analysis and recommendations for future research. Sports Med 2022; 52: 847-871
- 22 Ng CY, Chen SE, Lum D. Inducing postactivation potentiation with different modes of exercise. Strength Cond J 2020; 42: 63-81
- 23 Seitz LB, Haff GG. Factors modulating post-activation potentiation of jump, sprint, throw, and upper-body ballistic performances: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Med 2016; 46: 231-240
- 24 Wilson JM, Duncan NM, Marin PJ. et al. Meta-analysis of postactivation potentiation and power: effects of conditioning activity, volume, gender, rest periods, and training status. J Strength Cond Res 2013; 27: 854-859
- 25 Zhang X, Li H, Feng S, Su S. The Effect of Various Training Variables on Developing Muscle Strength in Velocity-based Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44: 857-864
- 26 Włodarczyk M, Adamus P, Zieliński J, Kantanista A. Effects of Velocity-Based Training on Strength and Power in Elite Athletes-A Systematic Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18: 5257
- 27 Zhang X, Feng S, Peng R, Li H. The Role of Velocity-Based Training (VBT) in Enhancing Athletic Performance in Trained Individuals: A Meta-Analysis of Controlled Trials. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19: 9252
- 28 Liao K-F, Wang X-X, Han M-Y, Li LL, Nassis GP, Li YM. Effects of velocity based training vs. traditional 1RM percentage-based training on improving strength, jump, linear sprint and change of direction speed performance: A Systematic review with meta-analysis. PLoS One 2021; 16: e0259790
- 29 Krzysztofik M, Kalinowski R, Trybulski R, Filip-Stachnik A, Stastny P. Enhancement of countermovement jump performance using a heavy load with velocity-loss repetition control in female volleyball players. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18: 11530
- 30 Krzysztofik M, Matykiewicz P, Celebanska D, Jarosz J, Gawel E, Zwierzchowska A. The acute post-activation performance enhancement of the bench press throw in disabled sitting volleyball athletes. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18: 3818
- 31 Krzysztofik M, Wilk M, Pisz A. et al. Acute effects of varied back squat activation protocols on muscle-tendon stiffness and jumping performance. J Strength Cond Res 2023; 37: 1419-1427
- 32 Tsoukos A, Brown LE, Terzis G, Veligekas P, Bogdanis GC. Potentiation of bench press throw performance using a heavy load and velocity-based repetition control. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 35: 72
- 33 Tsoukos A, Brown LE, Veligekas P, Terzis G, Bogdanis GC. Postactivation potentiation of bench press throw performance using velocity-based conditioning protocols with low and moderate loads. J Hum Kinet 2019; 68: 81-98
- 34 Yuan Z, Liao K, Zhang Y. et al. Optimal velocity loss threshold for inducing post activation potentiation in track and field athletes. Biol Sport 2023; 40: 603-609
- 35 Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM. et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021; 372: 71
- 36 Sterne J, Savović J, Page MJ. et al. RoB 2: a revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ 2019; 366: 4898
- 37 Hedges LV, Olkin I. Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic Press; 2014
- 38 Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge; 2013
- 39 Cui W, Chen Y, Wang D. Research on the effect of post-activation potentiation under different velocity loss thresholds on boxer’s punching ability. Front Physiol 2024; 15: 1429550
- 40 Li L, Mo L, Liu Y, Mei T. The Impact of Different Velocity Losses on Post-Activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) Effects in Sprint Athletes: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Study. Sports 2024; 12: 157
- 41 Collins KS, Bradley AP, Christensen BK. et al. Bench Press Range-of-Motion and Velocity-based Repetition Control: Effects on Ballistic Push-up Performance in Males. Int J Exerc Sci 2024; 17: 38-53
- 42 Higgins J. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. Version 5.1. 0. The Cochrane Collaboration; 2011. www.cochrane-handbook.org [updated March 2011] www.cochrane-handbook.org [updated March 2011]
- 43 Johnson MA, Polgar J, Weightman D, Appleton D. Data on the distribution of fibre types in thirty-six human muscles: an autopsy study. J Neurol Sci 1973; 18: 111-129
- 44 Matkowski B, Place N, Martin A, Lepers R. Neuromuscular fatigue differs following unilateral vs bilateral sustained submaximal contractions. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2011; 21: 268-276
- 45 Smith DA. A new mechanokinetic model for muscle contraction, where force and movement are triggered by phosphate release. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 2014; 35: 295-306
- 46 Allen DG, Lamb GD, Westerblad H. Skeletal muscle fatigue: cellular mechanisms. Physiol Rev 2008; 88: 287-332
- 47 González-Badillo JJ, Yañez-García JM, Mora-Custodio R, Rodríguez-Rosell D. Velocity loss as a variable for monitoring resistance exercise. Int J Sports Med 2017; 38: 217-225
- 48 Pareja-Blanco F, Rodríguez-Rosell D, Sánchez-Medina L. et al. Effects of velocity loss during resistance training on athletic performance, strength gains and muscle adaptations. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2017; 27: 724-735
- 49 Rodríguez-Rosell D, Yáñez-García JM, Mora-Custodio R. et al. Velocity-based resistance training: Impact of velocity loss in the set on neuromuscular performance and hormonal response. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 45: 817-828
- 50 González-Badillo JJ, Sánchez-Medina L. Movement velocity as a measure of loading intensity in resistance training. Int J Sports Med 2010; 31: 347-352
- 51 Henneman E, Olson CB. Relations between structure and function in the design of skeletal muscles. J Neurophysiol 1965; 28: 581-598
- 52 Xu K, Blazevich AJ, Boullosa D. et al. Optimizing Post-activation Performance Enhancement in Athletic Tasks: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis for Prescription Variables and Research Methods. Sports Med 2025; 1-32 10.0.3.239/s40279-024-02170-6
- 53 Cazas VL, Brown LE, Coburn JW. et al. Influence of rest intervals after assisted jumping on bodyweight vertical jump performance. J Strength Cond Res 2013; 27: 64-68
- 54 Mahlfeld K, Franke J, Awiszus F. Postcontraction changes of muscle architecture in human quadriceps muscle. Muscle Nerve 2004; 29: 597-600
- 55 Sweeney HL, Bowman BF, Stull JT. Myosin light chain phosphorylation in vertebrate striated muscle: regulation and function. Am J Physiol 1993; 264: C1085-C1095