RSS-Feed abonnieren
DOI: 10.1055/a-2700-8277
Reframing Standardized Assessments for Child African American English Speakers
Autor*innen
Abstract
This study reviews the sociocultural, linguistic, and historical foundations of standardized testing with African American children who speak African American English. Challenges associated with the use of traditional models of assessment that rely heavily on the use of standardized assessments have contributed to persisting disproportionalities in speech-language clinical and eligibility decisions. Advantages of using alternative assessment frameworks that rely less on standardized tests and more on the contextualization of the individual child, taking relevant sociocultural influences into account, are proposed.
Publikationsverlauf
Artikel online veröffentlicht:
16. Oktober 2025
© 2025. Thieme. All rights reserved.
Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA
-
References
- American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2017). Issues in ethics: Cultural and linguistic competence [Ethics]. Accessed September 17, 2025 at: https://www.asha.org/Practice/ethics/Cultural-and-Linguistic-Competence/
- Aston, C., & Brown, D. L. (2021). Progress or setback: revisiting the current state of assessment practices of Black children. Contemporary School Psychology, 25, 140–148
- Au, W. (2013). Hiding behind high-stakes testing: meritocracy, objectivity and inequality in US education. International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives, 12(2), 7–19
- Austin, L. (2010). Dynamic assessment: whys and hows. Perspectives on School-Based Issues, 11(3), 80–87
- Berry, J. R., & Oetting, J. B. (2017). Dialect variation of copula and auxiliary verb BE: African American English-speaking children with and without Gullah/Geechee heritage. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(9), 2557–2568. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0120
- Brandel, J. M., & Petersen, D. B. (2018). A framework for curriculum-based language evaluations. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 3(1), 25–38
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In Husen, T. & Postlethwaite, N. (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (Vol. 3, 2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier
- Brookfield, S. D. (2017). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. John Wiley & Sons
- Burton, V. J., & Watkins, R. V. (2007). Measuring word learning: dynamic versus static assessment of kindergarten vocabulary. Journal of Communication Disorders, 40(5), 335–356
- California Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (1994). CSHA position paper: assessment of the African American child. CSHA, 21(3), 1–17
- California Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2003a). The assessment of African American children: An update. Accessed September 17, 2025 at: https://www.csha.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/The-Assessment-if-African-American-Children-An-Update-on-Larry-P-2003.pdf
- California Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2003b, January 7). The assessment of African American children: An update on Larry P. Author. Accessed September 17, 2025 at: https://www.csha.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/The-Assessment-if-African-American-Children-An-Update-on-Larry-P-2003.pdf
- California State Department of Education (1989, January). Larry P. Task Force Report. Policy and alternative assessment guideline recommendations
- Carrow-Woolfolk, E. (2011a). Oral and Written Language Scales Second Edition [LC/OE Technical Manual]. Western Psychological Services
- Carrow-Woolfolk, E. (2011b). Oral and Written Language Scales Second Edition [Foundations of Language Assessment]. Western Psychological Services
- Carrow-Woolfolk, E. (2017). Comprehensive assessment of spoken language (CASL-2) (2nd ed.). Western Psychological Services.
- Castilla-Earls, A., Bedore, L., Rojas, R., Fabiano-Smith, L., Pruitt-Lord, S., Restrepo, M. A., & Peña, E. (2020). Beyond scores: using converging evidence to determine speech and language services eligibility for dual language learners. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(3), 1116–1132
- Champion, T. B., Hyter, Y. D., McCabe, A., & Bland-Stewart, L. M. (2003). A matter of vocabulary: Performances of low-income African American Head Start children on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 24(3), 121–127
- Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004). Grade-related changes in the production of African American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47(2), 450–463
- Daub, O., Hoffmann, C., & Paradis, J. (2021). Dynamic assessment of bilingual children's language abilities: a scoping review. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64(11), 4327–4344
- Dawson, J. I., Stout, C. E., & Eyer, J. A. (2003). Structured Photographic Expressive Language Test-Third Edition [SPELT-3]. Janelle Publications, Inc
- Dollaghan, C. A., Campbell, T. F., Paradise, J. L., Feldman, H. M., Janosky, J. E., Pitcairn, D. N., & Kurs-Lasky, M. (1999). Maternal education and measures of early speech and language. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42(6), 1432–1443
- Duchan, J. F., & Hewitt, L. E. (2023). How the charter members of ASHA responded to the social and political circumstances of their time. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 32(3), 1037–1049
- Dunn, D. M. (2019). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fifth Edition [Manual]. NCS Pearson, Inc
- Fazio, B. B., Naremore, R. C., & Connell, P. J. (1996). Tracking children from poverty at risk for specific language impairment: a 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39(3), 611–624
- Garrity, A. W., & Oetting, J. B. (2010). Auxiliary BE production by African American English-speaking children with and without specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53(5), 1307–1320
- Gibbons, P., Horton, R., & Johnson, V. E. (2022). A critical reflection on adaptation of teaching practices. Teaching and Learning in Communication Sciences & Disorders, 6(1). Advance online publication
- Gould, S. J. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man (Revised ed.). W. W. Norton & Company
- Green, L. J. (2002). African American English. A linguistic introduction. Cambridge University Press
- Gutiérrez-Clellen, V. F., & Peña, E. (2001). Dynamic assessment of diverse children: A tutorial. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32(4), 212–224
- Harris, B. A., & Graham, L. M. (2023). Resisting racialization in speech-language pathology: Historical roots and future directions. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 54(1), 1–15
- Hasson, N., & Joffe, V. (2007). The case for dynamic assessment in speech and language therapy. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 23(1), 9–25
- Helm, K., & Selin, C. (2025). The conversational language profile of children in low socioeconomic environments: a systematic review. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 10(1), 88–108
- Hendricks, A. E., & Adlof, S. M. (2017). Language assessment with children who speak nonmainstream dialects: examining the effects of scoring modifications in norm-referenced assessment. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 48(3), 168–182
- Hendricks, A. E., & Adlof, S. M. (2020). Production of morphosyntax within and across different dialects of American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(7), 2322–2333
- Hendricks, A. E., & Diehm, E. A. (2020). Survey of assessment and intervention practices for students who speak African American English. Journal of Communication Disorders, 83, 105967
- Hillard, A. G., III. (1992). IQ and the courts: Larry P. v. Wilson Riles and PASE v. Hannon. In A. K. H. Burlew, W.C. Banks, H. P. McAdoo, & D. A. y. Azibo (Eds.), African American psychology: Theory, Research, and practice (pp. 199–218). SAGE Publications, Inc
- Horton, R., & Ellis Weismer, S. (2007). A preliminary examination of vocabulary and word learning in African American toddlers from middle and low socioeconomic status homes. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16(4), 381–392
- Horton, R., Johnson, V., & Koonce, N. (2018). From here to there and back again: forty years of research on African American children's language. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 3(14), 57–70
- Horton, R., Munoz, M., Khamis, R., Munson, B., Yu, B., Johnson, V. E., & Hyter, Y. (2023). "Outsider within": lessons learned about SLHS and race scholarship. Journal of Critical Study of Communication and Disability, 1(1), 69–87
- Horton-Ikard, R., Munoz, M. L., Thomas-Tate, S., & Keller-Bell, Y. (2009). Establishing a pedagogical framework for the multicultural course in communication sciences and disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18(2), 192–206
- Hyter, Y. D., & Salas-Provance, M. B. (2023). Culturally responsive practices in speech, language, and hearing sciences. Plural Publishing
- Institute for Education Sciences (2025). Indicator 4: Children Living in Poverty. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/raceindicators/indicator_rad.asp
- Jocelyn, J. Elie, M., Lucker, J. R., Harris, O. L. H., & Rose, S. T. (2024). The perspectives of Haitian parents on heritage language maintenance. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 33(4), 1880–1901. https://doi.org/10.1044/2024_PERSP-23-00196
- Johns, B. R. (2024). Book banning in US schools and prisons as modern-day slave codes. English Journal, 113(3), 37–46
- Johnson, V. E. (2010). Fast mapping verb meaning from argument structure. Topics in Language Disorders, 30(2), 103–118
- Kapantzoglou, M., Restrepo, M. A., & Thompson, M. S. (2012). Dynamic assessment of word learning skills: identifying language impairment in bilingual children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 43(1), 81–96
- Keller-Bell, Y. D. (2021). Disproportionate representation in special education and the intersectionality of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. In Critical perspectives on social justice in speech-language pathology (pp. 1–17). IGI Global
- Laing, S. P., & Kamhi, A. (2003). Alternative assessment of language and literacy in culturally and linguistically diverse populations. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 34(1), 44–55
- Larry, P. v. Riles, 495 F. Supp. 926 (United States District Court, N.D. California, October 16, 1979). Accessed September 17, 2025 at: https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/495/926/2007878/
- Lidz, C. S., & Peña, E. D. (1996). Dynamic assessment: the model, its relevance as a nonbiased approach, and its application to Latino American preschool children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 27(4), 367–372
- Losen, D. J., & Orfield, G. (2002). Racial inequity in special education (pp. 39-70). Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, Harvard Education Press.
- Madaus, G., & Clarke, M. (2001). The adverse impact of high-stakes testing on minority students: evidence from 100 years of test data. High-Stakes Testing in Education: Science and Practice in K–12 Settings, 85(3), 86–92
- Marencin, N. C., Edwards, A. A., & Terry, N. P. (2024). Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 55(3), 918-937. https://doi.org/10.1044/2024_LSHSS-23-00134
- Martin, N. A., & Brownell, R. (2011). Expressive one-word picture vocabulary test-4 (EOWPVT-4). Academic Therapy Publications.
- Mills, M. T. (2015). Narrative performance of gifted African American school-aged children from low-income backgrounds. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 24(1), 36–46
- Moss, D. & Timler, G. R. (2023). Assessing the language abilities of Bahamian Creole English-speaking children. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 9, 767–778. https://doi.org/10.1044/2023_PERSP-23-00070
- Muñoz, M. L., Horton, R., & Johnson, V. E. (2024, December 5–7). An inclusive model for undergraduate education [Poster presentation]. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association Annual Convention, Seattle, WA, United States
- Nair, V. K. K., Farah, W., & Cushing, I. (2023). A critical analysis of standardized testing in speech and language therapy. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 54(3), 781–793
- Nelson, N. W. (1989). Curriculum-based language assessment and intervention. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 20(2), 170–184
- Nelson, N. W. (2010). Language and Literacy Disorders: Infancy through Adolescence. New York, NY: Pearson Education
- Nelson, S. L., & Williams, R. O. (2019). From slave codes to educational racism: urban education policy in the United States as the dispossession, containment, dehumanization, and disenfranchisement of black peoples. Journal of Law and Society, 19(1–2), 82–120
- Newkirk-Turner, B. L., & Johnson, V. E. (2018). Curriculum-based language assessment with culturally and linguistically diverse students in the context of mathematics. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 49(2), 189–196
- Núñez, G., Buren, M., Bailey, T., & Crowley, C. (2024). Dynamic changes toward reflective practice: documented shifts in speech-language pathologists' evaluation practices. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 33(6), 2921–2938
- Oetting, J. B., & McDonald, J. L. (2001). Nonmainstream dialect use and specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44(1), 207-223. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2001/018)
- Oetting, J. B., & Garrity, A. W. (2006). Variation within dialects: A case of Cajun/Creole influence within child SAAE and SWE. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49 (1), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2006/002)
- Oetting, J. B., McDonald, J. L., Seidel, C. M., & Hegarty, M. (2016). Sentence recall by children with SLI across two nonmainstream dialects of English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 59(1), 183–194
- Oetting, J. B., Rivière, A. M., Berry, J. R., Gregory, K. D., Villa, T. M., & McDonald, J. (2021). Marking of tense and agreement in language samples by children with and without specific language impairment in African American English and Southern White English: Evaluation of scoring approaches and cut scores across structures. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64(2), 491–509
- Orellana, C. I., Wada, R., & Gillam, R. B. (2019). The use of dynamic assessment for the diagnosis of language disorders in bilingual children: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 28(3), 1298–1317
- Oswald, D. P., Coutinho, M. J., & Best, A. M. (2002). Community and school predictors of overrepresentation of minority children in special education. Racial inequity in special education (pp. 1–13). Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, Harvard Education Press
- Papandrea, M. T., Namazi, M., Ghanim, I., & Patten, S. (2023). Identifying racial and socioeconomic biases in New Jersey special education eligibility. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 54(2), 600–617
- Pearson, B. Z., Jackson, J. E., & Wu, H. (2014). Seeking a valid gold standard for an innovative, dialect-neutral language test. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 57(2), 495–508
- Peña, E. D., Iglesias, A., & Lidz, C. S. (2001). Reducing test bias through dynamic assessment of children's word learning ability. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10(2), 138–154
- Pillay, D., & Kathard, H. (2022). Decolonising health and rehabilitation: the role of universal design, inclusion and transformation. African Journal of Disability, 11, 1–8
- Power-deFur, L. A. (2024). Special education assessment: practices that support eligibility and intervention. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 55(2), 336–348
- Privette, C. (2023). Embracing theory as liberatory practice: journeying toward a critical praxis of speech, language, and hearing. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 54(3), 688–706
- Rickford, J. R. (1999). African American Vernacular English: Features, Evolution, Educational Implications. Blackwell Publishers, Inc
- Robinson, G. C., & Norton, P. C. (2019). A decade of disproportionality: a state-level analysis of African American students enrolled in the primary disability category of speech or language impairment. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 50(2), 267–282
- Roid, G. H. (2003). Stanford-Binet intelligence scales (5th ed.): Technical manual. Riverside Publishing.
- Roseberry-McKibbin, C. (2013). Language disorders in children: A multicultural and case perspective. Pearson Education, Inc
- Semel, E., Wiig, E., & Secord, W. A. (2003). Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition. Pearson
- Seymour, H. N., Bland-Stewart, L., & Green, L. J. (1998). Difference vs. deficit in child African American English. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 29(2), 96–108
- Seymour, H. N., Roeper, T. W., & de Villers, J. (2018a). Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation Norm Referenced (DELV-NR). Ventris Learning. (Original work published 2005)
- Seymour, H. N., Roeper, T. W., & de Villers, J. (2018b). Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation Screening Test (DELV-ST). Ventris Learning. (Original work published 2003)
- Shipley, K. G., & McAfee, J. G. (2021). Assessment in speech-language pathology: A resource manual (6th ed.). Plural Publishing, Inc
- Stockman, I. J. (2010). A review of developmental and applied language research on African American children: from a deficit to difference perspective on dialect differences. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 41(1), 23–38
- Taylor, O. L., & Payne, K. (1986). Culturally valid testing: a proactive approach. Topics in Language Disorders, 3(3), 8–20
- Terry, N. P., & McDonald Connor, C. (2012). Changing nonmainstream American English use and early reading achievement from kindergarten to first grade. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 21(1), 78–86
- Ukrainetz, T. A. (2009). Contextualized language intervention: Scaffolding PreK–12 literacy achievement. ProEd
- Vaughn-Cooke, F. (1986). The challenge of assessing the language of non-mainstream speakers. In O. Taylor (Ed.), Treatment of communicative disorders in culturally and linguistically diverse populations (pp. 23–48). College Hill Press
- Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press
- Washington, K. N., Fritz, K., Crowe, K., Kelly, B., & Karem, R. W. (2019). Bilingual preschoolers' spontaneous productions: Considering Jamaican Creole and English. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 50(2), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_LSHSS-18-0072
- Westby, C., & Washington, K. N. (2017). Using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health in assessment and intervention of school-aged children with language impairments. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 48(3), 137–152
- Whitehead, D. (2007). Literacy assessment practices: moving from standardised to ecologically valid assessments in secondary schools. Language and Education, 21(5), 434–452
- Wiig, E. H., Secord, W. A., & Semel, E. (2004). Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Preschool-Second Edition. The Psychological Corporation/Harcourt Assessment
- Wiig, E. H., Semel, E., & Secord, W. A. (2013). Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals–Fifth Edition [Technical Manual]. Bloomington, MN: NCS Pearson
- Willoughby, B. (2004, Spring). Brown v Board timeline: school integration in the United States. Teaching Tolerance, 25, 42–56
- Wolfram, W., & Schilling, N. (2016). American English: Dialects and Variation (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc
- Wood, C. L., Biggs, M. J., & Molnar, A. L. (2004). Dynamic assessments of word reading skills in diverse school-age children: a meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(3), 240–256
- Wyatt, T. A. (1995). Language development in African American English child speech. Linguistics and Education, 7(1), 7–22
- Wyatt, T. A. (2001). The role of family, community, and school in children's acquisition and maintenance of African American English. In S. L. Lanehart (Ed.). Sociocultural and historical contexts of African American English (pp. 261–280). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
- Wyatt, T. A. (2015). Assessing the Language Skills of African American English Child Speakers: Current Approaches and Perspectives. In Lanehart, S. (Ed.) The Oxford Handbook of African American Language (pp 525–543). Oxford University Press
- Yu, B., Epstein, L., & Tisi, V. (2021). A DisCrit-informed critique of the difference vs. disorder approach in speech-language pathology. In Critical perspectives on social justice in speech-language pathology (pp. 105–128). IGI Global
- Zenderland, L. (1998). Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing. Cambridge University Press
- Zimmerman, I. L., Steiner, V. G., & Pond, R. E. (2011). Preschool Language Scales Fifth Edition [Examiner's Manual]. NCS Pearson, Inc.
- Zwick, R. (2004). Rethinking the SAT: The future of standardized testing in university admissions. Routledge
