Download PDF
Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 32(6): 703-716
DOI: 10.1055/s-0031-1295718
© Thieme Medical Publishers

Pneumonia and Lung Infections due to Emerging and Unusual Fungal Pathogens

Sharon C.-A. Chen1 , 2 , Christopher C. Blyth3 , Tania C. Sorrell1 , 2 , Monica A. Slavin4
  • 1Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, Australia
  • 2Sydney Emerging Infectious Diseases Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
  • 3Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
  • 4Department of Infectious Diseases, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Australia
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
13 December 2011 (online)

   Permissions and Reprints
Preview

ABSTRACT

Invasive mold infections affecting the lungs are increasing in incidence and diversity. Severely immunocompromised patients are particularly vulnerable to infection from unusual, normally nonpathogenic fungi that are found naturally in the environment. Certain fungi such as Scedosporium and the dematiaceous fungi also cause lung disease in hosts without overt immune compromise. The impacts of these emerging pathogens range from airway colonization to locally invasive lung, and disseminated, disease. Diagnosis requires isolation and identification of the etiologic agent by either or both phenotypic and molecular biology methods. Evidence of tissue invasion on histopathology is often required to distinguish infection from colonization. Diagnostic imaging techniques are nonspecific, and there are no reliable serological biomarkers of infection. Many rare molds and yeasts demonstrate reduced in vitro susceptibility to antifungal agents. Although amphotericin B formulations remain clinically useful for many of these infections, voriconazole and posaconazole are more effective for some of these difficult-to-treat pathogens. Surgical resection of diseased tissue and support of the host immune system are often required to optimize outcomes.

KEYWORDS

Hyalohyphomycosis - phaeohyphomycosis - pneumonia

REFERENCES

  • 1 Pfaller M A, Diekema D J. Epidemiology of invasive mycoses in North America.  Crit Rev Microbiol. 2010;  36 (1) 1-53
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 2 Ben-Ami R, Lewis R E, Kontoyiannis D P. Invasive mould infections in the setting of hematopoietic cell transplantation: current trends and new challenges.  Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2009;  22 (4) 376-384
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 3 Neofytos D, Horn D, Anaissie E et al.. Epidemiology and outcome of invasive fungal infection in adult hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: analysis of Multicenter Prospective Antifungal Therapy (PATH) Alliance registry.  Clin Infect Dis. 2009;  48 (3) 265-273
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 4 Pappas P G, Alexander B D, Andes D R et al.. Invasive fungal infections among organ transplant recipients: results of the Transplant-Associated Infection Surveillance Network (TRANSNET).  Clin Infect Dis. 2010;  50 (8) 1101-1111
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 5 Malani A N, Kauffman C A. Changing epidemiology of rare mould infections: implications for therapy.  Drugs. 2007;  67 (13) 1803-1812
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 6 Pfaller M A, Diekema D J. Azole antifungal drug cross-resistance: mechanisms, epidemiology and clinical significance.  J Invasive Fungal Infect. 2007;  1 74-92
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 7 Cortez K J, Roilides E, Quiroz-Telles F et al.. Infections caused by Scedosporium spp.  Clin Microbiol Rev. 2008;  21 (1) 157-197
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 8 Revankar S G, Sutton D A. Melanized fungi in human disease.  Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;  23 (4) 884-928
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 9 Naggie S, Perfect J R. Molds: hyalohyphomycosis, phaeohyphomycosis, and zygomycosis.  Clin Chest Med. 2009;  30 (2) 337-353, vii–viii
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 10 Nucci M, Anaissie E. Fusarium infections in immunocompromised patients.  Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;  20 (4) 695-704
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 11 Heath C H, Slavin M A, Sorrell T C Australian Scedosporium Study Group et al. Population-based surveillance for scedosporiosis in Australia: epidemiology, disease manifestations and emergence of Scedosporium aurantiacum infection.  Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;  15 (7) 689-693
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 12 Gilgado F, Gené J, Cano J, Guarro J. Heterothallism in Scedosporium apiospermum and description of its teleomorph Pseudallescheria apiosperma sp. nov.  Med Mycol. 2010;  48 (1) 122-128
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 13 Ben-Ami R, Lewis R E, Raad I I, Kontoyiannis D P. Phaeohyphomycosis in a tertiary care cancer center.  Clin Infect Dis. 2009;  48 (8) 1033-1041
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 14 Labbé A C, Su S H, Laverdière M et al.. High incidence of invasive aspergillosis associated with intestinal graft-versus-host disease following nonmyeloablative transplantation.  Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2007;  13 (10) 1192-1200
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 15 Husain S, Muñoz P, Forrest G et al.. Infections due to Scedosporium apiospermum and Scedosporium prolificans in transplant recipients: clinical characteristics and impact of antifungal agent therapy on outcome.  Clin Infect Dis. 2005;  40 (1) 89-99
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 16 Husain S, Alexander B D, Munoz P et al.. Opportunistic mycelial fungal infections in organ transplant recipients: emerging importance of non-Aspergillus mycelial fungi.  Clin Infect Dis. 2003;  37 (2) 221-229
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 17 Pagano L, Akova M, Dimopoulos G, Herbrecht R, Drgona L, Blijlevens N. Risk assessment and prognostic factors for mould-related diseases in immunocompromised patients.  J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;  66 (Suppl 1) i5-i14
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 18 Nucci M, Marr K A, Queiroz-Telles F et al.. Fusarium infection in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients.  Clin Infect Dis. 2004;  38 (9) 1237-1242
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 19 Neofytos D, Fishman J A, Horn D et al.. Epidemiology and outcome of invasive fungal infections in solid organ transplant recipients.  Transpl Infect Dis. 2010;  12 (3) 220-229
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 20 Garcia-Vidal C, Upton A, Kirby K A, Marr K A. Epidemiology of invasive mold infections in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: biological risk factors for infection according to time after transplantation.  Clin Infect Dis. 2008;  47 (8) 1041-1050
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 21 Safdar A, Rodriguez G H, De Lima M J et al.. Infections in 100 cord blood transplantations: spectrum of early and late posttransplant infections in adult and pediatric patients 1996–2005.  Medicine (Baltimore). 2007;  86 (6) 324-333
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 22 Mihu C N, King E, Yossepovitch O et al.. Risk factors and attributable mortality of late aspergillosis after T-cell depleted hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.  Transpl Infect Dis. 2008;  10 (3) 162-167
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 23 van Burik J A, Carter S L, Freifeld A G et al.. Higher risk of cytomegalovirus and Aspergillus infections in recipients of T cell-depleted unrelated bone marrow: analysis of infectious complications in patients treated with T cell depletion versus immunosuppressive therapy to prevent graft-versus-host disease.  Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2007;  13 (12) 1487-1498
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 24 Tsiodras S, Samonis G, Boumpas D T, Kontoyiannis D P. Fungal infections complicating tumour necrosis factor alpha blockade therapy.  Mayo Clin Proc. 2008;  83 (2) 181-194
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 25 Marr K A, Carter R A, Crippa F, Wald A, Corey L. Epidemiology and outcome of mould infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients.  Clin Infect Dis. 2002;  34 (7) 909-917
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 26 Kontoyiannis D P, Marr K A, Park B J et al.. Prospective surveillance for invasive fungal infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients, 2001-2006: overview of the Transplant-Associated Infection Surveillance Network (TRANSNET) Database.  Clin Infect Dis. 2010;  50 (8) 1091-1100
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 27 Marr K A, Carter R A, Boeckh M, Martin P, Corey L. Invasive aspergillosis in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: changes in epidemiology and risk factors.  Blood. 2002;  100 (13) 4358-4366
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 28 Campo M, Lewis R E, Kontoyiannis D P. Invasive fusariosis in patients with hematologic malignancies at a cancer center: 1998-2009.  J Infect. 2010;  60 (5) 331-337
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 29 Carneiro H A, Coleman J J, Restrepo A, Mylonakis E. Fusarium infection in lung transplant patients: report of 6 cases and review of the literature.  Medicine (Baltimore). 2011;  90 (1) 69-80
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 30 Groll A H, Walsh T J. Uncommon opportunistic fungi: new nosocomial threats.  Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001;  7 (Suppl 2) 8-24
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 31 Backman K S, Roberts M, Patterson R. Allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis caused by Fusarium vasinfectum.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;  152 (4 Pt 1) 1379-1381
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 32 Saini S K, Boas S R, Jerath A, Roberts M, Greenberger P A. Allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis to Fusarium vasinfectum in a child.  Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1998;  80 (5) 377-380
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 33 Sahi H, Avery R K, Minai O A et al.. Scedosporium apiospermum (Pseudoallescheria boydii) infection in lung transplant recipients.  J Heart Lung Transplant. 2007;  26 (4) 350-356
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 34 Symoens F, Knoop C, Schrooyen M et al.. Disseminated Scedosporium apiospermum infection in a cystic fibrosis patient after double-lung transplantation.  J Heart Lung Transplant. 2006;  25 (5) 603-607
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 35 Tamm M, Malouf M, Glanville A. Pulmonary Scedosporium infection following lung transplantation.  Transpl Infect Dis. 2001;  3 (4) 189-194
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 36 Katragkou A, Dotis J, Kotsiou M, Tamiolaki M, Roilides E. Scedosporium apiospermum infection after near-drowning.  Mycoses. 2007;  50 (5) 412-421
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 37 Blyth C C, Middleton P G, Harun A, Sorrell T C, Meyer W, Chen S C. Clinical associations and prevalence of Scedosporium spp. in Australian cystic fibrosis patients: identification of novel risk factors?.  Med Mycol. 2010;  48 (Suppl 1) S37-S44
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 38 Varkey J B, Perfect J R. Rare and emerging fungal pulmonary infections.  Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;  29 (2) 121-131
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 39 Pastor F J, Guarro J. Clinical manifestations, treatment and outcome of Paecilomyces lilacinus infections.  Clin Microbiol Infect. 2006;  12 (10) 948-960
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 40 Castro L G, Salebian A, Sotto M N. Hyalohyphomycosis by Paecilomyces lilacinus in a renal transplant patient and a review of human Paecilomyces species infections.  J Med Vet Mycol. 1990;  28 (1) 15-26
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 41 Byrd Jr R P, Roy T M, Fields C L, Lynch J A. Paecilomyces variotii pneumonia in a patient with diabetes mellitus.  J Diabetes Complications. 1992;  6 (2) 150-153
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 42 Pastorino A C, Menezes U P, Marques H H et al.. Acremonium kiliense infection in a child with chronic granulomatous disease.  Braz J Infect Dis. 2005;  9 (6) 529-534
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 43 Gutiérrez F, Masiá M, Ramos J, Elía M, Mellado E, Cuenca-Estrella M. Pulmonary mycetoma caused by an atypical isolate of Paecilomyces species in an immunocompetent individual: case report and literature review of Paecilomyces lung infections.  Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;  24 (9) 607-611
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 44 Chouaki T, Lavarde V, Lachaud L, Raccurt C P, Hennequin C. Invasive infections due to Trichoderma species: report of 2 cases, findings of in vitro susceptibility testing, and review of the literature.  Clin Infect Dis. 2002;  35 (11) 1360-1367
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 45 Alanio A, Brethon B, Feuilhade de Chauvin M et al.. Invasive pulmonary infection due to Trichoderma longibrachiatum mimicking invasive Aspergillosis in a neutropenic patient successfully treated with voriconazole combined with caspofungin.  Clin Infect Dis. 2008;  46 (10) e116-e118
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 46 Mouri M, Nambu Y, Horii H et al.. Case report and review of literature on seasonal distribution and pathogenesis of acute eosinophilic pneumonia in Japan [in Japanese].  Nihon Kyobu Shikkan Gakkai Zasshi. 1993;  31 (12) 1578-1584
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 47 Machouart M, Garcia-Hermoso D, Rivier A et al.. Emergence of disseminated infections due to Geosmithia argillacea in patients with chronic granulomatous disease receiving long-term azole antifungal prophylaxis.  J Clin Microbiol. 2011;  49 (4) 1681-1683
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 48 De Ravin S S, Challipalli M, Anderson V et al.. Geosmithia argillacea: an emerging cause of invasive mycosis in human chronic granulomatous disease.  Clin Infect Dis. 2011;  52 (6) e136-e143
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 49 Revankar S G, Patterson J E, Sutton D A, Pullen R, Rinaldi M G. Disseminated phaeohyphomycosis: review of an emerging mycosis.  Clin Infect Dis. 2002;  34 (4) 467-476
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 50 Shoham S, Pic-Aluas L, Taylor J et al.. Transplant-associated Ochroconis gallopava infections.  Transpl Infect Dis. 2008;  10 (6) 442-448
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 51 Boyce R D, Deziel P J, Otley C C et al.. Phaeohyphomycosis due to Alternaria species in transplant recipients.  Transpl Infect Dis. 2010;  12 (3) 242-250
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 52 Girmenia C, Pagano L, Martino B GIMEMA Infection Program et al. Invasive infections caused by Trichosporon species and Geotrichum capitatum in patients with hematological malignancies: a retrospective multicenter study from Italy and review of the literature.  J Clin Microbiol. 2005;  43 (4) 1818-1828
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 53 Ruan S Y, Chien J Y, Hsueh P R. Invasive trichosporonosis caused by Trichosporon asahii and other unusual Trichosporon species at a medical center in Taiwan.  Clin Infect Dis. 2009;  49 (1) e11-e17
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 54 Matsue K, Uryu H, Koseki M, Asada N, Takeuchi M. Breakthrough trichosporonosis in patients with hematologic malignancies receiving micafungin.  Clin Infect Dis. 2006;  42 (6) 753-757
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 55 Wolf D G, Falk R, Hacham M et al.. Multidrug-resistant Trichosporon asahii infection of nongranulocytopenic patients in three intensive care units.  J Clin Microbiol. 2001;  39 (12) 4420-4425
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 56 Cuenca-Estrella M, Bassetti M, Lass-Flörl C, Rácil Z, Richardson M, Rogers T R. Detection and investigation of invasive mould disease.  J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;  66 (Suppl 1) i15-i24
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 57 De Pauw B, Walsh T J, Donnelly J P European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group et al. Revised definitions of invasive fungal disease from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group (EORTC/MSG) Consensus Group.  Clin Infect Dis. 2008;  46 (12) 1813-1821
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 58 Hayden R T, Isotalo P A, Parrett T et al.. In situ hybridization for the differentiation of Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Pseudallescheria species in tissue section.  Diagn Mol Pathol. 2003;  12 (1) 21-26
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 59 Lau A, Chen S, Sorrell T et al.. Development and clinical application of a panfungal PCR assay to detect and identify fungal DNA in tissue specimens.  J Clin Microbiol. 2007;  45 (2) 380-385
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 60 Harun A, Blyth C C, Gilgado F, Middleton P, Chen S C, Meyer W. Development and validation of a mulitplex PCR for detection of Scedosporium spp. in respiratory tract specimens from patients with cystic fibrosis.  J Clin Microbiol. 2011;  49 (4) 1508-1512
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 61 Ahmad S, Khan Z U, Theyyathel A M. Development of a nested PCR assay for the detection of Fusarium solani DNA and its evaluation in the diagnosis of invasive fusariosis using an experimental mouse model.  Mycoses. 2010;  53 (1) 40-47
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 62 De Hoog G S, Guarro J, Gene J et al.. Atlas of Clinical Fungi. Utrecht/Reus: Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures/Universität Rovira i Virgili; 2000
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 63 Herbrecht R, Letscher-Bru V, Fohrer C et al.. Acremonium strictum pulmonary infection in a leukemic patient successfully treated with posaconazole after failure of amphotericin B.  Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2002;  21 (11) 814-817
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 64 Silveira F P, Kwak E J, Paterson D L, Pilewski J M, McCurry K R, Husain S. Post-transplant colonization with non-Aspergillus molds and risk of development of invasive fungal disease in lung transplant recipients.  J Heart Lung Transplant. 2008;  27 (8) 850-855
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 65 Lionakis M S, Kontoyiannis D P. The significance of isolation of saprophytic molds from the lower respiratory tract in patients with cancer.  Cancer. 2004;  100 (1) 165-172
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 66 Balajee S A, Borman A M, Brandt M E et al.. Sequence-based identification of Aspergillus, fusarium, and mucorales species in the clinical mycology laboratory: where are we and where should we go from here?.  J Clin Microbiol. 2009;  47 (4) 877-884
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 67 Wang H, Xiao M, Kong F R et al.. Accurate and practical identification of 20 Fusarium species by seven-locus sequence analysis and reverse line blot hybridization, and an in vitro antifungal susceptibility study.  J Clin Microbiol. 2011;  49 (5) 1890-1898
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 68 Barnett J A, Payne R W, Yarrow D. Yeasts: Characteristics and Identification. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2000
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 69 Lau A, Chen S, Sleiman S, Sorrell T. Current status and future perspectives on molecular and serological methods in diagnostic mycology.  Future Microbiol. 2009;  4 (9) 1185-1222
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 70 O’Donnell K, Sutton D A, Rinaldi M G et al.. Internet-accessible DNA sequence database for identifying fusaria from human and animal infections.  J Clin Microbiol. 2010;  48 (10) 3708-3718
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 71 Hennequin C, Abachin E, Symoens F et al.. Identification of Fusarium species involved in human infections by 28S rRNA gene sequencing.  J Clin Microbiol. 1999;  37 (11) 3586-3589
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 72 Nilsson R H, Ryberg M, Kristiansson E, Abarenkov K, Larsson K H, Kõljalg U. Taxonomic reliability of DNA sequences in public sequence databases: a fungal perspective.  PLoS ONE. 2006;  1 e59
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 73 Mennink-Kersten M A, Ruegebrink D, Klont R R et al.. Bifidobacterial lipoglycan as a new cause for false-positive platelia Aspergillus enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay reactivity.  J Clin Microbiol. 2005;  43 (8) 3925-3931
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 74 Viscoli C, Machetti M, Cappellano P et al.. False-positive galactomannan platelia Aspergillus test results for patients receiving piperacillin-tazobactam.  Clin Infect Dis. 2004;  38 (6) 913-916
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 75 Yoshida M, Obayashi T, Iwama A et al.. Detection of plasma (1 —>3)-beta-D-glucan in patients with Fusarium, Trichosporon, Saccharomyces and Acremonium fungaemias.  J Med Vet Mycol. 1997;  35 (5) 371-374
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 76 Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Alexander B D, Kett D H et al.. Multicenter clinical evaluation of the (1—>3) beta-D-glucan assay as an aid to diagnosis of fungal infections in humans.  Clin Infect Dis. 2005;  41 (5) 654-659
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 77 Karageorgopoulos D E, Vouloumanou E K, Ntziora F, Michalopoulos A, Rafailidis P I, Falagas M E. β-D-glucan assay for the diagnosis of invasive fungal infections: a meta-analysis.  Clin Infect Dis. 2011;  52 (6) 750-770
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 78 Alexander B D, Smith P B, Davis R D, Perfect J R, Reller L B. The (1,3)beta-D-glucan test as an aid to early diagnosis of invasive fungal infections following lung transplantation.  J Clin Microbiol. 2010;  48 (11) 4083-4088
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 79 Marom E M, Holmes A M, Bruzzi J F, Truong M T, O’Sullivan P J, Kontoyiannis D P. Imaging of pulmonary fusariosis in patients with hematologic malignancies.  AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2008;  190 (6) 1605-1609
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 80 Althoff Souza C, Müller N L, Marchiori E, Escuissato D L, Franquet T. Pulmonary invasive aspergillosis and candidiasis in immunocompromised patients: a comparative study of the high-resolution CT findings.  J Thorac Imaging. 2006;  21 (3) 184-189
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 81 Tashiro T, Nagai H, Nagaoka H, Goto Y, Kamberi P, Nasu M. Trichosporon beigelii pneumonia in patients with hematologic malignancies.  Chest. 1995;  108 (1) 190-195
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 82 Houbraken J, Verweij P E, Rijs A J, Borman A M, Samson R A. Identification of Paecilomyces variotii in clinical samples and settings.  J Clin Microbiol. 2010;  48 (8) 2754-2761
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 83 Ananda-Rajah M R, Grigg A, Slavin M A. Breakthrough disseminated Scedosporium prolificans infection in a patient with relapsed leukaemia on prolonged voriconazole followed by posaconazole prophylaxis.  Mycopathologia. 2008;  166 (2) 83-86 Epub 2008 May 30
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 84 Liu J Y, Chen W T, Ko B S et al.. Combination antifungal therapy for disseminated fusariosis in immunocompromised patients: a case report and literature review.  Med Mycol. 2011;  49 (8) 872-878
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 85 Henrich T J, Marty F M, Milner Jr D A, Thorner A R. Disseminated Geotrichum candidum infection in a patient with relapsed acute myelogenous leukemia following allogeneic stem cell transplantation and review of the literature.  Transpl Infect Dis. 2009;  11 (5) 458-462
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 86 Rodriguez-Tudela J L, Berenguer J, Guarro J et al.. Epidemiology and outcome of Scedosporium prolificans infection, a review of 162 cases.  Med Mycol. 2009;  47 (4) 359-370
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 87 Perfect J R, Marr K A, Walsh T J et al.. Voriconazole treatment for less-common, emerging, or refractory fungal infections.  Clin Infect Dis. 2003;  36 (9) 1122-1131
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 88 Raad I I, Hachem R Y, Herbrecht R et al.. Posaconazole as salvage treatment for invasive fusariosis in patients with underlying hematologic malignancy and other conditions.  Clin Infect Dis. 2006;  42 (10) 1398-1403
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 89 Troke P, Aguirrebengoa K, Arteaga C Global Scedosporium Study Group et al. Treatment of scedosporiosis with voriconazole: clinical experience with 107 patients.  Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;  52 (5) 1743-1750
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 90 Lortholary O, Obenga G, Biswas P French Mycoses Study Group et al. International retrospective analysis of 73 cases of invasive fusariosis treated with voriconazole.  Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;  54 (10) 4446-4450
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 91 Castelli M V, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Cuesta I et al.. Susceptibility testing and molecular classification of Paecilomyces spp.  Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;  52 (8) 2926-2928
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 92 Mattei D, Mordini N, Lo Nigro C et al.. Successful treatment of Acremonium fungemia with voriconazole.  Mycoses. 2003;  46 (11-12) 511-514
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 93 Suzuki K, Nakase K, Kyo T et al.. Fatal Trichosporon fungemia in patients with hematologic malignancies.  Eur J Haematol. 2010;  84 (5) 441-447
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 94 Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Cuenca-Estrella M, Monzón A, Mellado E, Rodríguez-Tudela J L. Antifungal susceptibility profile of clinical Fusarium spp. isolates identified by molecular methods.  J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;  61 (4) 805-809
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 95 Shalit I, Shadkchan Y, Mircus G, Osherov N. In vitro synergy of caspofungin with licensed and novel antifungal drugs against clinical isolates of Fusarium spp.  Med Mycol. 2009;  47 (5) 457-462
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 96 Nucci M, Anaissie E J, Queiroz-Telles F et al.. Outcome predictors of 84 patients with hematologic malignancies and Fusarium infection.  Cancer. 2003;  98 (2) 315-319
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 97 Neuburger S, Massenkeil G, Seibold M et al.. Successful salvage treatment of disseminated cutaneous fusariosis with liposomal amphotericin B and terbinafine after allogeneic stem cell transplantation.  Transpl Infect Dis. 2008;  10 (4) 290-293
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 98 Ho D Y, Lee J D, Rosso F, Montoya J G. Treating disseminated fusariosis: amphotericin B, voriconazole or both?.  Mycoses. 2007;  50 (3) 227-231
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 99 Meletiadis J, Mouton J W, Meis J F, Verweij P E. In vitro drug interaction modeling of combinations of azoles with terbinafine against clinical Scedosporium prolificans isolates.  Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;  47 (1) 106-117
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 100 Cuenca-Estrella M, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Alcazar-Fuoli L et al.. In vitro activities of 35 double combinations of antifungal agents against Scedosporium apiospermum and Scedosporium prolificans.  Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;  52 (3) 1136-1139
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 101 Kesson A M, Bellemore M C, O’Mara T J, Ellis D H, Sorrell T C. Scedosporium prolificans osteomyelitis in an immunocompetent child treated with a novel agent, hexadecylphospocholine (miltefosine), in combination with terbinafine and voriconazole: a case report.  Clin Infect Dis. 2009;  48 (9) 1257-1261
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 102 Schell W A, Perfect J R. Fatal, disseminated Acremonium strictum infection in a neutropenic host.  J Clin Microbiol. 1996;  34 (5) 1333-1336
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 103 Pfaller M A, Messer S A, Hollis R J, Jones R N. SENTRY Participants Group . Antifungal activities of posaconazole, ravuconazole, and voriconazole compared to those of itraconazole and amphotericin B against 239 clinical isolates of Aspergillus spp. and other filamentous fungi: report from SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program, 2000.  Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;  46 (4) 1032-1037
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 104 Perfect J R. Treatment of non-Aspergillus moulds in immunocompromised patients, with amphotericin B lipid complex.  Clin Infect Dis. 2005;  40 (Suppl 6) S401-S408
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 105 Fianchi L, Montini L, Caira M et al.. Combined voriconazole plus caspofungin therapy for the treatment of probable Geotrichum pneumonia in a leukemia patient.  Infection. 2008;  36 (1) 65-67
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 106 Etienne A, Datry A, Gaspar N et al.. Successful treatment of disseminated Geotrichum capitatum infection with a combination of caspofungin and voriconazole in an immunocompromised patient.  Mycoses. 2008;  51 (3) 270-272
    Search in Google Scholar

Sharon C.-A. ChenPh.D. 

Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology

Westmead Hospital, Darcy Road, Westmead NSW 2145, Australia

Email: sharon.chen@swahs.health.nsw.gov.au