Salivary Nitric Oxide and Alpha-Amylase as Indexes of Training Intensity and Load

Abstract

This study examined the variation in salivary nitric oxide (NO), alpha-amylase (sAA) and serum markers of muscle injury during 21 weeks of training in elite swimmers. Samples of saliva and blood were collected once a month during 5 months from 11 male professional athletes during their regular training season. The variation in each marker throughout the 21 weeks was compared with the dynamics of training volume, intensity and load. Unstimulated whole saliva was assessed for NO and sAA whereas venous blood was assessed for lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, and γ-glutamyltransferase. Nitric oxide and sAA showed a proportional response to the intensity of training. However, whereas the concentration of NO increased across the 21 weeks, the activity of sAA decreased. Similar variations in the concentration of NO and the markers of muscle injury were also observed. The higher concentration of NO might be attributed to changes in haemodynamics and muscle regenerative processes. On the other hand, autonomic regulation towards parasympathetic predominance might have been responsible for the decrease in sAA activity. These findings provide appealing evidence for the utilization of salivary constituents in sports medicine to monitor training programmes.

Key words

biomarker - saliva - blood - exercise - sports training

• References

• 1 Allgrove JE, Gomes E, Hough J, Gleeson M. Effects of exercise intensity on salivary antimicrobial proteins and markers of stress in active men. J Sports Sci 2008; 26: 653-661
• 2 Berntson GG, Bigger Jr JT, Eckberg DL, Grossman P, Kaufmann PG, Malik M, Nagaraja HN, Porges SW, Saul JP, Stone PH, van der Molen MW. Heart rate variability: origins, methods, and interpretive caveats. Psychophysiology 1997; 34: 623-648
• 3 Bocanegra OL, Diaz MM, Teixeira RR, Soares SS, Espindola FS. Determination of the lactate threshold by means of salivary biomarkers: chromogranin A as novel marker of exercise intensity. Eur J Appl Physiol [Epub ahead of print].
• 4 Bosch JA, Veerman ECI, de Geus EJ, Proctor GB. α-Amylase as a reliable and convenient measure of sympathetic activity: don’t start salivating just yet!. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011; 36: 449-453
• 5 Brancaccio P, Lippi G, Maffulli N. Biochemical markers of muscular damage. Clin Chem Lab Med 2010; 48: 757-767
• 6 Chatterton Jr RT, Vogelsong KM, Lu YC, Ellman AB, Hudgens GA. Salivary alpha-amylase as a measure of endogenous adrenergic activity. Clin Physiol 1996; 16: 433-448
• 7 Droppleman M, Douglas M, Lorr M, Leo F Psychiatric Rating Scales: Profile of Mood States (POMS) No. 8 in a Series 1971; Hoffmann-La Roche Inc.
• 8 Duncan C, Dougall H, Johnston P, Green S, Brogan R, Leifert C, Smith L, Golden M, Benjamin N. Chemical generation of nitric oxide in the mouth from the enterosalivary circulation of dietary nitrate. Nat Med 1995; 1: 546-551
• 9 Filippin LI, Moreira AJ, Marroni NP, Xavier RM. Nitric oxide and repair of skeletal muscle injury. Nitric Oxide 2009; 21: 157-163
• 10 Goldsmith RL, Bloomfield DM, Rosenwinkel ET. Exercise and autonomic function. Coron Artery Dis 2000; 11: 129-135
• 11 González D, Marquina R, Rondón N, Rodriguez-Malaver AJ, Reyes R. Effects of aerobic exercise on uric acid, total antioxidant activity, oxidative stress, and nitric oxide in human saliva. Res Sports Med 2008; 16: 128-137
• 12 Granger DA, Kivlighan KT, el-Sheikh M, Gordis EB, Stroud LR. Salivary alpha-amylase in biobehavioral research: recent developments and applications. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007; 1098: 122-144
• 13 Harriss DJ, Atkinson G. Update – ethical standards in sport and exercise science research. Int J Sports Med 2011; 32: 819-821
• 14 Huonker M, Halle M, Keul J. Structural and functional adaptations of the cardiovascular system by training. Int J Sports Med 1996; 17 (Suppl. 03) S164-S172
• 15 Kariyawasam AP, Dawes C. A circannual rhythm in unstimulated salivary flow rate when the ambient temperature varies by only about 2 degrees C. Arch Oral Biol 2005; 50: 919-922
• 16 Kenttä G, Hassmén P. Overtraining and recovery. A conceptual model. Sports Med 1998; 26: 1-16
• 17 Kleinbongard P, Dejam A, Lauer T, Jax T, Kerber S, Gharini P, Balzer J, Zotz RB, Scharf RE, Willers R, Schechter AN, Feelisch M, Kelm M. Plasma nitrite concentrations reflect the degree of endothelial dysfunction in humans. Free Radic Biol Med 2006; 40: 295-302
• 18 Lauer T, Preik M, Rassaf T, Strauer BE, Deussen A, Feelisch M, Kelm M. Plasma nitrite rather than nitrate reflects regional endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity but lacks intrinsic vasodilator action. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98: 12814-12819
• 19 Li T-L, Gleeson M. The effect of single and repeated bouts of prolonged cycling and circadian variation on saliva flow rate, immunoglobulin A and alpha-amylase responses. J Sports Sci 2004; 22: 1015-1024
• 20 Looms D, Tritsaris K, Pedersen AM, Nauntofte B, Dissing S. Nitric oxide signalling in salivary glands. J Oral Pathol Med 2002; 31: 569-584
• 21 Maiorana A, O’Driscoll G, Taylor R, Green D. Exercise and the nitric oxide vasodilator system. Sports Med 2003; 33: 1013-1035
• 22 Mohan RM, Choate JK, Golding S, Herring N, Casadei B, Paterson DJ. Peripheral pre-synaptic pathway reduces the heart rate response to sympathetic activation following exercise training: role of NO. Cardiovasc Res 2000; 47: 90-98
• 23 Nater UM, Rohleder N. Salivary alpha-amylase as a non-invasive biomarker for the sympathetic nervous system: current state of research. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009; 34: 486-496
• 24 O’Sullivan SE, Bell C. Training reduces autonomic cardiovascular responses to both exercise-dependent and -independent stimuli in humans. Auton Neurosci 2001; 91: 76-84
• 25 Panossian AG, Oganessian AS, Ambartsumian M, Gabrielian ES, Wagner H, Wikman G. Effects of heavy physical exercise and adaptogens on nitric oxide content in human saliva. Phytomedicine 1999; 6: 17-26
• 26 Proctor GB, Carpenter GH. Regulation of salivary gland function by autonomic nerves. Auton Neurosci 2007; 133: 3-18
• 27 Rahman ZA, Abdullah N, Singh R, Sosroseno W. Effect of acute exercise on the levels of salivary cortisol, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and nitric oxide. J Oral Sci 2010; 52: 133-136
• 28 Rassaf T, Lauer T, Heiss C, Balzer J, Mangold S, Leyendecker T, Rottler J, Drexhage C, Meyer C, Kelm M. Nitric oxide synthase-derived plasma nitrite predicts exercise capacity. Br J Sports Med 2007; 41: 669-673
• 29 Scannapieco FA, Torres G, Levine MJ. Salivary alpha-amylase: role in dental plaque and caries formation. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 1993; 4: 301-307
• 30 Schwarz P, Diem R, Dun NJ, Förstermann U. Endogenous and exogenous nitric oxide inhibits norepinephrine release from rat heart sympathetic nerves. Circ Res 1995; 77: 841-848
• 31 Smith DJ. A framework for understanding the training process leading to elite performance. Sports Med 2003; 33: 1103-1126
• 32 Tsikas D. Analysis of nitrite and nitrate in biological fluids by assays based on the Griess reaction: appraisal of the Griess reaction in the L-arginine/nitric oxide area of research. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2007; 851: 51-70
• 33 Urhausen A, Gabriel H, Kindermann W. Blood hormones as markers of training stress and overtraining. Sports Med 1995; 20: 251-276
• 34 Urhausen A, Kindermann W. Diagnosis of overtraining: what tools do we have?. Sports Med 2002; 32: 95-102