Download PDF
Methods Inf Med 1993; 32(05): 407-417
DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1634953
Review Paper
Schattauer GmbH

Virtual Reality in Medicine

K.-F. Kaltenborn
1   Institute for Medical Informatics, University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
,
O. Rienhoff
1   Institute for Medical Informatics, University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
08 February 2018 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR), as part of computer science, allows computer-based models of the real world to be generated, and provides humans with a means to interact with these models through new human-computer interfaces and, thus, to nearly realistically experience these models. This contribution explores the technical requirements for VR, describes technological advances and deficits, and analyzes the framework for future technological research and development. Although some non-medical applications are discussed, this contribution focuses primarily on medical applications of VR and outlines future prospects of medical VR applications. Finally, possible hazards arising from the use of VR are discussed. The authors recommend an interdisciplinary approach to technology assessment of VR.

Key-Words

Virtual Reality - Human-Computer Interface - Human-Computer Communication
 

  • REFERENCES

  • 1 Aukstakalnis S, Blatner D. Silicon Mirage. The Art and Science of Virtual Reality. Berkeley: Peachpit Press; 1992
    Google Scholar
  • 2 Levy S. Cyberspaced. A gentle demurral to the hype about virtual reality. Macworld 1991; 08: 61-8.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Remann M. Cyber, Cyber über alles?. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace - Ausflüge in virtuelle Wirklichkeiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 15-9.
    Google Scholar
  • 4 Thwaites HM, Malik ME. Toward virtual realities: a biocybernetic view of communication media of the 21st century. In: Advances in Information Systems Research. Fifth International Conference on Systems Research, Informatics and Cybernetics; Baden-Baden: 1991: 473-80.
    Google Scholar
  • 5 Wright J. Altered states: a software developer’s vision of the future of virtual reality. Computer Graphics World 1989; 12: 77-83.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Rheingold H. Virtual Reality. New York: Simon’& Schuster; 1991. (Also in German: Rheingold H. Virtuelle Welten. Reisen im Cyberspace. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1992
    Google Scholar
  • 7 Roth A. Virtual worlds. Exe Magazine 1991; 06: 12-8.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Being and believing: Ethics of virtual reality. Lancet 1991; 338: 283-4.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Krueger M. Virtual reality: a technology in nursing education’s future. Nurs Educ Microworld 1991; 05: 17-9.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Stix G. See-through view. Virtual reality may guide physicians’ hands. Sci Am 1992; 267: 123.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Sutherland IE. The ultimate display. In: Proceedings of the IFIP Congress. 1965: 506-8.
    Google Scholar
  • 12 Sutherland IE. A head-mounted three-dimensional display. In: Proceedings of the Fall Joint Computer Conference. 1968: 757-64.
    Google Scholar
  • 13 MacNicol G. What’s wrong with reality? A realist reflects on virtual reality: is it a virtual boom or a boondoggle?. Computer Graphics World 1990; 13: 102-8.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Polillo R. Interacting with artificial realities. Note di Software (Dipartimento di Scienze della Informazione Universita degli Studi di Milano and Etnoteam S.p.A. - Milano) 1990; 48-49: 7-28.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Krueger MW. Artificial Reality II. 2nd ed. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publ Comp; 1991
    Google Scholar
  • 16 Nugent WR. Virtual reality - advanced imaging special effects let you roam in cyberspace. J Amer Soc Inform Sci 1991; 42: 609-17.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Akins AS. Virtual reality and the physically disabled. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services. 1992: 9-14.
    Google Scholar
  • 18 Cyberspace und virtuelle Realität - Para-digma der 90er Jahre?. Biomed J 1991; (31) 4-6.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Jacobson L. Virtual reality: a status report. AI Expert 1991; 06: 26-33.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Lanier J. Virtual reality and persons with disabilities. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 3-7.
    Google Scholar
  • 21 Middleton T. Matching virtual reality solutions to special needs. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 37-45.
    Google Scholar
  • 22 Segura J, Chouchan D. Réalité virtuelle, un plongeon dans l’image? Du visible a Tinvisible. Recherche 1991; 22: 232-5.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Stone RJ. Virtual Reality. Interfaces for the 21st century. In: Advanced Information Systems (AIS 91, The new technologies in today’s business environment incorporating the sixth international expert systems conference). Oxford: Learned Information; 1991: 99-110.
    Google Scholar
  • 24 Spring MB. Informating with virtual reality. In: Helsel S, Roth J. eds. Virtual Reality: Theory, Practice, and Promise. Westport: Meckler Publishing; 1991: 3-17.
    Google Scholar
  • 25 Walker J. Through the Looking Glass. In: Laurel B, Mountford SJ. eds. The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design. Reading: Addison-Wesley; 1990: 439-47. (Also in German: Walker J. Hinter den Spiegeln. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace - Ausfluge in virtuelle Wirklich-keiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 20-31.
    Google Scholar
  • 26 Carrabine L. Plugging into the computer to sense virtual reality. Computer-Aided Engin 1990; 09: 16-26.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Walser R. The emerging technology of cyberspace. In: Helsel S, Roth J. eds. Virtual Reality: Theory, Practice, and Promise. Westport: Meckler Publishing; 1991: 35-40.
    Google Scholar
  • 28 Heim M. The metaphysics of virtual reality. In: Helsel S, Roth J. eds. Virtual Reality: Theory, Practice, and Promise. Westport: Meckler Publishing; 1991: 27-34.
    Google Scholar
  • 29 The Protein Experience. Lifelines. 1992. 3 12-13. Glaxo Group; UK:
    Google Scholar
  • 30 Brockers M. Digital magic. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace - Ausfluge in virtuelle Wirklichkeiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 90-7.
    Google Scholar
  • 31 Leary T. The interpersonal, interactive, interdimensional interface. In: Laurel B, Mountford SJ. eds. The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design. Reading: Addison-Wesley; 1990: 229-33. (Also in German: Leary T. Das interpersonale, interaktive, interdimensionale Interface. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace - Ausfluge in virtuelle Wirklichkeiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 275-81.
    Google Scholar
  • 32 Saffo P. Virtual reality is almost real. Personal Computing 1990; 14: 99-102.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Enrado P. Virtual reality resource guide. AI Expert 1991; 06: 40-1.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 McCauley ME, Sharkey TJ. Spatial orientation and dynamics in virtual reality systems. Lessons from flight simulation. In: Human Factors Society Inc). Santa Monica: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society; 1991: 1348-52.
    Google Scholar
  • 35 Pausch R. Virtual reality on five dollars a day. In: Robertson SP, Olson GM, Olson JS. eds. Human Factors in Computing Systems: Reaching Through Technology. CHI ‘91. Reading: Addison-Wesley; 1991: 265-70.
    Google Scholar
  • 36 Grimsdale C. Virtual reality - key technologies, problems, and emerging solutions. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 14-22.
    Google Scholar
  • 37 Ditlea S. Another world: Inside artificial reality. PC Computing 1989; 02 (11) 90-102.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Foley JD. Interfaces of advanced computing. Sci Amer 1987; 257: 82-90.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Green M. Virtual reality user interface: tools and techniques. In: Chua TS, Kunii TL. eds. CG International ‘90. Computer Graphics Around the World. Heidelberg: Springer; 1990: 51-68.
    Google Scholar
  • 40 Magnenat-Thalmann N. Multimedia, - virtual reality and computer animation. In: Maurer H. ed. Hypertext/Hypermedia ‘91. (Informatik Fachberichte 276). Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1991: 1-17.
    Google Scholar
  • 41 Kalawsky R. Beyond the super cockpit. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 69-77.
    Google Scholar
  • 42 Wang J, Chi V, Fuchs H. A real-time optical 3D tracker for head-mounted display systems. Computer Graphics: Symposium on Interactive 3D Graphics 1990; 24: 205-15.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Holloway R, Fuchs H, Robinett W. Virtual-Worlds Research at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill as of February 1992. In: Kunii TL. ed. Computer Graphics-International Visual Computing. Tokyo: Springer; 1992: 109-28.
    Google Scholar
  • 44 Knapp RB, Lusted HS. Biocontrollers for the physically disabled: a direct link from nervous system to computer. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 25-9.
    Google Scholar
  • 45 Peli E. Visual issues in the use of a head-mounted monocular display. Optical Engin 1990; 29: 883-92.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Schroder P. Wir bauen eine Maschine, die stolz auf uns sein wird. Biomed J 1991; 31: 7-9.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Sturman DJ. Spiirbar real? Virtuelle Wirklichkeit und menschliche Wahrnehmung. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace - Ausfluge in virtuelle Wirklichkeiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 99-123.
    Google Scholar
  • 48 Venolia D, Williams L. Virtual integral holography. In: SPIE - Extracting Meaning from Complex Data: Processing, Display, Interaction 1990; 1259: 99-105.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Akiyama K, Tetsutani N, Ishibashi M, Ichinose S, Yasuda H. Consideration on 3-dimensional visual communication systems. IEEE J on Selected Areas in Communications 1991; 09: 555-60.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Speser P, Barrett R. R & D and sales Opportunities are a virtual reality. Laser Focus World 1991; 27: 21 25.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Begault DR, Wenzel EM. Technical Aspects of a Demonstration Tape for Three-dimensional Sound Displays. NASA Technical Memorandum 102826. Moffett Filed: Ames Research Center; 1990
    Google Scholar
  • 52 Wenzel EM. Localization in virtual acoustic displays. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 1992; 01: 80-107.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Brooks FP, Ming OY, Batter JJ, Kilpatrick PJ. Project GROPE - Haptic displays for scientific visualization. ACM Computer Graphics 1990; 24: 177-85.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Heidersberger B. Die digitale Droge. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace - Ausfluge in virtuelle Wirklichkeiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 52-65.
    Google Scholar
  • 55 Iwata H. Artificial reality with force-feedback. Development of desktop virtual space with compact master manipulator. ACM Computer Graphics 1990; 24: 165-70.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Vollmuth J. Virtuelle Realität. Schone neue Wirklichkeit. Chip 1991; 04: 18-22.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Zerkus M, Becker B, Ward J, Halvorsen L. Displaced temperature sensing system for use in prosthetic limbs research, virtual reality, and teleoperated robots. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 81-7.
    Google Scholar
  • 58 Arthur C. Did reality move for you?. New Scientist 1992; 134: 22-7.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Davis DB. Reality check: how far has virtual reality technology come, and where is it going?. Computer Graphics World 1991; 14: 49-54.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Krueger M. The Emperor’s New Reality. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 53-64.
    Google Scholar
  • 61 Saffo P. Virtual reality is simply the latest step in a long media history. InfoWorld 1991; 13 (September 30): 48.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Saffo P. Virtual reality is more than goggles, gloves, and fantasies. InfoWorld 1991; 13 (September 16): 59.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Feldman T. British Aerospace initiative on human factors in virtual environments. Virtual Reality Report 1992; 02 (02) 5-7.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Feldman T. VR view from Europe. Virtual Reality Report 1992; 02 (03) 5-9.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Irrer Igel. Mit großem Einsatz kämpfen Japanische Video-Hersteller um die Vor-herrschaft in Kinderzimmern und Spiel-hallen. Spiegel 1992; 46 (SI): 239-41.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Grimes J. Virtual reality goes commercial with a blast. IEEE Comput Graph Applic 1992; 12: 16-7.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Fisher SS. Virtual interface environments. In: Laurel B, Mountford SJ. eds. The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design. Reading: Addison-Wesley; 1990: 423-38. (Also in German: Fisher SS. Wenn das Interface im Virtuellen verschwindet. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace - Ausfluge in virtuelle Wirklichkeiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 35-51.
    Google Scholar
  • 68 Fisher SS. Virtual Environments: Personal simulations and telepresence. In: Helsel S, Roth J. eds. Virtual Reality: Theory, Practice, and Promise. Westport: Meckler Publishing; 1991: 101-10.
    Google Scholar
  • 69 Helsel SK. Interview with Michael Moshell. Virtual Reality Report 1992; 02 (03) 2-4.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Patch K. NASA contract kicks off Silicon Graphics Program. Digital Review 1990; (July 16): 9.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Puttre M. Virtual reality comes into focus. Mech Engin 1991; 113: 56-9.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Wright R. Virtual reality. Sciences 1987; 27: 8-10.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Neugebauer J. Industrial applications of virtual reality: robot application planning. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 92-102.
    Google Scholar
  • 74 Jacobson R. Televirtuality: networked experience. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 44-52.
    Google Scholar
  • 75 Stone R, Dalton G, Connell A. New developments in telepresence. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 103-16.
    Google Scholar
  • 76 Fotorealistische Visualisierung durch die weltschnellste Rendering-Software. Herstellung von 3-D-Illustrationen in hochster Qualitat. Markt & Technik 1992; 19: 78-82.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Encarnacao J, Sakas G. Die perfekte Tau-schung als hochgestecktes Ziel. Simulation von Wolken und Wolkenbewegungen im Computer. Forschung, Mitteilungen der DFG 1992; 02: 4-7.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Feiner S, Beshers C. Visualizing n-dimen-sional virtual worlds with n-vision. ACM Computer Graphics 1990; 24: 37-38.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Herron RE. Recent applications of bio-stereometrics in research and education. In: SPIE - Biostereometric Technology and Applications 1990; 1380: 2-5.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Palmer TC. A language for molecular visualization. IEEE Comp Graph Applic 1992; 23-32.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Theasby P. Virtual reality and simulation. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 78-91.
    Google Scholar
  • 82 Henderson J. Designing realities: interactive media, virtual realities, and cyberspace. In: Helsel S, Roth J. eds. Virtual Reality: Theory, Practice, and Promise. Westport: Meckler Publishing; 1991: 65-73.
    Google Scholar
  • 83 Kobielus J. Virtual reality may transform future multimedia interfaces. Network World 1991; 08: 33.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Worthington P. Multimedia is taking on training. InfoWorld 1990; 12 (Septembers): 13.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Robert I. Psychological and pedagogical issues in using virtual reality systems. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 117-9.
    Google Scholar
  • 86 Traub DC. Simulated world as classroom: The potential for designed learning within virtual environments. In: Helsel S, Roth J. eds. Virtual Reality: Theory, Practice, and Promise. Westport: Meckler Publishing; 1991: 111-21.
    Google Scholar
  • 87 Haggerty M. The art of artificial reality. IEEE Comp Graph Applic 1991; 11: 8-14.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Kendall GS. Visualization by ear: auditory imagery for scientific visualization and virtual reality. Comp Music J 1991; 15: 70-73.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Machover T. Zukunftsmusik auf Hyperin-strumenten. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace — Ausflüge in virtuelle Wirklich-keiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 161-3.
    Google Scholar
  • 90 Peterson I. Artificial reality. Science News 1985; 127: 396-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Shaw J. Das virtuelle Museum. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace - Ausflüge in virtuelle Wirklichkeiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 155.
    Google Scholar
  • 92 Shaw J. Virtual reality: A new medium for the artist?. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 65-8.
    Google Scholar
  • 93 Trubitt D. Into new worlds: Virtual reality and the electronic musician. Electronic Musician. 1990. 6 30-40. (Also in German: Trubitt D. Auf zu neuen Welten -virtuelle Realitaten und elektronische Musik. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace -Ausflüge in virtuelle Wirklichkeiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 135-43.
    Google Scholar
  • 94 Newquist HP. A computer-generated suspension of disbelief. The intriguing part of virtual reality is that it can create representations of our imagination. AI Expert 1991; 06: 34-9.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Rayl AJS. The new, improved reality. Los Angeles Times Magazine 1991; (July 21): 17-20. 30.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Greenberg DP. Computers and architecture. Sci Amer 1991; 264: 104-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Quien N, Müller W. Computergraphik und gotische Architektur I. Von der Norm zur Form. Spektrum der Wissenschaft 1991; (Dezember): 120-7.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Quien N, Müller W. Computergraphik und gotische Architektur II. Der virtuelle Steinmetz. Spektrum der Wissenschaft 1991; (Dezember): 128-33.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Quien N, Müller W. Gothic vaults and transputers. IEEE Comp Graph Applic 1992; (March): 12-3.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Stoppi J. Virtual and real-time interactive spatial modelling. The rules and tools of virtual architecture and construction. In: Feldman T. ed. Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. London: Meckler; 1992: 23-30.
    Google Scholar
  • 101 Walser R. Doing it directly. The Experimental Design of Cyberspaces. Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering. Bellingham 1990; 1256: 147-53.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Holloway R, Fuchs H, Robinett W. Virtual-worlds research at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. In: Proceedings of Computer Graphics. London: 1991: 181-96.
    Google Scholar
  • 103 McDonald CJ. More on micromechanics. MD Comput 1992; 09: 19-20.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Fruchterman JR. The age of magic. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 15-20.
    Google Scholar
  • 105 Heilbrun A, Stacks B. Virtual reality. An interview with Jaron Lanier. Whole Earth Review. 1989. 48 108-119: (German: Heilbrun A, Stacks B. Was heiBt »virtuelle Realitat«? Ein Interview mit Jaron Lanier. In: Waffender M. ed. Cyberspace - Ausflüge in Virtuelle Wirklichkeiten. Hamburg: Rowohlt; 1991: 67-87.
    Google Scholar
  • 106 Helsel SK. Interview with Richard M. Satava. Virtual Reality Report 1992; 02 (04) 2-5.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Cook AM, Hoseit P, Liu KM, Lee RY, Zenteno-Sanchez CM. Using a robotic arm system to facilitate learning in very young disabled children. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1988; 35: 132-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Douglas J, Reeson B, Ryan M. Computer microtechnology for a severely disabled preschool child. Child Care Health Dev 1988; 14: 93-104.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Gosine RG, Harwin WS, Furby U, Jackson RD. An intelligent end-effector for a rehabilitation robot. J Med Eng Technol 1989; 13: 37-43.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Greenleaf WJ. DataGIove, dataSuit, and virtual reality: advanced technology for people with disabilities. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 21-4.
    Google Scholar
  • 111 Harwin WS, Ginige A, Jackson RD. A robot workstation for use in education of the physically handicapp. ed. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1988; 35: 127-31.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Hillman MR, Pullin GM, Gammie AR, Stammers CW, Orpwood RD. Development of a robot arm and workstation for the disabl. ed. J Biomed Engl 1990; 12: 199-204.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Hillman MR, Pullin GM, Gammie AR, Stammers CW, Orpwood RD. Clinical experience in rehabilitation robotics. J Biomed Engl 1991; 13: 239-43.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Preising B, Hsia TC, Mittelstadt B. A literature review: Robots in medicine. IEEE Engin Med Biol 1991; 10: 13-22. 71.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Prior SD. An electric wheelchair mounted robotic arm - a survey of potential users. J Med Engl Technol 1990; 14: 143-54.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Dijkers MP, deBear PC, Erlandson RF, Kristy K, Geer DM, Nichols A. Patient and staff acceptance of robotic technology in occupational therapy: a pilot study. J Rehabil Res Dev 1991; 28: 33-44.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Van Vliet P, Wing AM. A new challenge -robotics in the rehabilitation of the neurologically motor impair. ed. Phys Ther 1991; 71: 39-47.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Finlay PA. Advanced medical robotics: outcomes from the DTI Feasibility Study. IEE Colloquium on “High-Tech Help for the Handicapped”. 1990 054: 2/1-2.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Prior SD, Warner PR. A review of world rehabilitation robotics research. IEE Colloquium on “High-Tech Help for the Handicapped”. 1990 054: 1/1-3.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Pullin G, Gammie A. Current capabilities of rehabilitation robots. J Biomed Eng 1991; 13: 215-6.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Dymond EA, Potter R, Griffiths PA, McCIemont EJ. A week in the life of Mary: The impact of microtechnology on a severely handicapped person. J Biomed Eng 1988; 10: 483-90.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Greenleaf Medical Systems. Product announcements. Virtual Reality Report 1992; 02 (06) 13.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 123 Vamplew P, Adams A. The SLARTI System: Applying artificial neural networks to sign:language recognition. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 71-80.
    Google Scholar
  • 124 BioControI Systems. Product announcements. Virtual Reality Report 1992; 02 (06) 13-4.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 125 Urdang EG, Stuart R. Orientation enhancement through integrated virtual reality and geographic information systems. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 55-61.
    Google Scholar
  • 126 Vanderheiden GC, Mendenhall J, Andersen T. Access issues related to virtual reality for people with disabilities. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 63-70.
    Google Scholar
  • 127 Cuschieri A. Endoskopische Mikrochirur-gie. Chirurg 1991; 62: 248-52.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 128 Semm K. Der Wandel von der Laparotomie zur minimal invasiven Chirurgie: hier Pelviskopie. Archiv Gynecol Obst 1989; 245: 19-21.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 129 Aretz HT, Gregory KW, Martinelli MA. et al. Ultrasound guidance of laser atherectomy. Int J Card Imaging 1991; 06: 231-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 130 Cavaye DM, Tabbara MR, Kopchok GE, Laas TE, White RA. Three-dimensional vascular ultrasound imaging. Am Surg 1991; 57: 751-5.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 131 Kelly IM, Gardener JE, Lees WR. Three-dimensional fetal ultrasound. Lancet 1992; 339: 1062-4.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 132 Rosenfield K, Kaufman J, Pieczek A, Langevin Jr RE, Razvi S, Isner JM. Realtime three-dimensional reconstruction of intravascular ultrasound images of iliac arteries. Am J Cardiol 1992; 70: 412-5.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 133 Sohn C, Bastert G. Dreidimensionale Ultraschalldarstellung. Klinische Anwen-dung. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1992; 117: 467-72.
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 134 Chan WP, Lang P, Chieng PU, Davison PA, Huang SC, Genant HK. Three-dimensional imaging of the musculoskeletal system: an overview. J Formosan Med Assoc 1991; 90: 713-22.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 135 Crass JR, Miller C, Cohen AM. Radiological application of three dimensional imaging systems. In: Seminars in Ultrasound; CT, and MRI: 1992. 13 94-101.
    Google Scholar
  • 136 Linney AD, Moss JP, Richards R, Mosse CA, Grindrod SR, Coombes AM. Use of 3-D visualisation system in the planning and evaluation of facial surgery. In: SP1E - Biostereometric Technology and Applications 1990; 1380: 190-9.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 137 Schubert R, Holtje WJ, Tiede U, Hohne KH. 3D-Darstellungen fur die Kiefer- und Gesichtschirurgie. Radiologe 1991; 31: 467-73.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 138 Shankar L, Montanera W. Computed tomography versus magnetic resonance imaging and three-dimensional applications. Med Clin North Am 1991; 75: 1355-66.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 139 Tiede U, Hoehne KH, Bomans M, Pom-mert A, Riemer M, Wiebecke G. Investigation of medical 3D-rendering algorithms. IEEE Comp Graph Applic 1990; 41-53.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 140 Uhrmeister P, Langer M, Zwicker C, Astinet F, Felix R. Dreidimensionale Computertomographie von Frakturen. Aktuel Traumatol 1991; 21: 129-34.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 141 Drake JM, Joy M, Goldenberg A, Kreindler D. Computer- and robot-assisted resection of thalamic astrocytomas in children. Neurosurgery 1991; 29: 27-33.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 142 Kelly PJ. Computer assisted stereotactic biopsy and volumetric resection of pediatric brain tumors. Neurol Clin 1991; 09: 317-36.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 143 Kosugi Y, Watanabe E, Goto J. et al. An articulated neurosurgical navigation system using MRI and CT images. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1988; 35: 147-52.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 144 Watanabe E, Mayanagi Y, Kosugi Y, Manaka S, Takakura K. Open surgery assisted by the neuronavigator, a stereotactic, articulated, sensitive arm. Neurosurgery 1991; 28: 792-800.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 145 Olson AJ, Goodsell DS. A functional view of proteins. IEEE Comp Graph Applic 1991; 15-17.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 146 Olson AJ, Goodsell DS. Biomoleküle zum Anschauen. Spektrum der Wissenschaft 1993; 74-80.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 147 Bains S. Surgeons slice virtual leg. New Scientist 1991; 131 (July 6): 28.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 148 Helsel SK. Medicine meets virtual reality. Virtual Reality Report 1992; 02 (06) 11-3.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 149 Ward P. Virtual reality in mental therapy. In: Virtual Reality International 92. Impacts and Applications. Proc 2nd Ann Conf Virtual Reality International; London: 1992. (unpublished).
    Google Scholar
  • 150 Feldman T. VR view from Europe. Virtual Reality Report 1992; 02 (04) 5-9.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 151 Rose A. Access for persons with disabilities through hypermedia and virtual reality. In: Murphy HJ. ed. Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge: California State University, Office of Disabled Student Services; 1992: 47-53.
    Google Scholar
  • 152 Tart CT. Multiple personality, altered states and virtual reality: the world simulation process approach. Dissociation Progress in the Dissociative Disorders 1990; 03: 222-33.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 153 Klonovsky M, Bergemann S. »Ich ertrinke in Einsamkeit«. Zeitmagazin 1992; 47 (Nr.32, 31.Juli): 28-35.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 154 Brown RIF, Robertson S. Home-computer and video-game addictions in relation to adolescent gambling: conceptual and developmental aspects. In: Eadington W. et al. eds. Gambling Behavior and Problem Gambling. (in press).
    Google Scholar
  • 155 Burke P. Culture and society in Renaissance Italy 1420-1540. London: Batsford; 1972. (Also in German: Burke P. Die Renaissance in Italien. Sozialgeschichte einer Kultur zwischen Tradition und Erfindung. BerlIn: Verlag K. Wagenbach; 1984
    Google Scholar
  • 156 Feldman T. VR view from Europe. Virtual Reality Report 1992; 02 (05) 4-8.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 157 Krueger MW. Artificial reality: past and future. In: Helsel S, Roth J. eds. Virtual Reality: Theory, Practice, and Promise. Westport: Meckler Publishing; 1991: 19-25.
    Google Scholar
  • 158 Kaltenborn KF. Literaturdatenbanken fur universitäre Ausbildung, Weiterbildung und medizinische Forschung. Med Klin 1989; 84: 339-43. 368.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 159 Kaltenborn KF, Ennis M. Evaluation of the effects of modern information technology on university education and research in the health sciences. Theor Surg 1991; 06: 29-37.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 160 Gombrich EH. The Story of Art. 13th ed. London: Phaidon press; 1978. (Also in German: Gombrich EH. Die Geschichte der Kunst. Stuttgart: Belser; 1992
    Google Scholar
  • 161 Berger PL, Luckmann T. The Social Construction of Reality. New York: Double-day; 1966. (Also in German: Berger PL, Luckmann T. Die gesellschaftliche Kon-struktion der Wirklichkeit. Eine Theorie der Wissenssoziologie. Frankfurt/Main: Fischer-Verlag; 1992
    Google Scholar