Download PDF
Int J Sports Med 2012; 33(09): 696-701
DOI: 10.1055/s-0031-1298003
Training & Testing
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Stroking Parameters during Continuous and Intermittent Exercise in Regional-Level Competitive Swimmers

M.F. M. Oliveira
1   Human Performance Research Group, Physical Education, Florianópolis, Brazil
,
F. Caputo
2   Santa Catarina State University, Physical Education, Florianópolis, Brazil
,
J. Dekerle
3   University of Brighton, Chelsea School, Eastbourne, United Kingdom
,
B. S. Denadai
4   UNESP, Human Performance Laboratory, Rio Claro, Brazil
,
C. C. Greco
5   UNESP, Human Performance Laboratory, Rio Claro, Brazil
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History



accepted after revision 22 November 2011

Publication Date:
16 May 2012 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

This study aimed to determine whether maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) represents a boundary above which not only physiological but also technical changes occur. On different days, 13 male swimmers (23±9 years) performed the following tests: 1) a 400-m all-out swim, to determine maximal aerobic speed (S-400); 2) a series of 30-min sub-maximal swims, to determine continuous MLSS (MLSSc), and; 3) a series of 12×150 s sub-maximal swims, to determine intermittent MLSS (MLSSi). Stroke rate (SR), distance per stroke cycle (DS) and stroke index (SI) were analyzed at and above (102.5%) MLSSc and MLSSi. MLSSi (1.17±0.09 m.s − 1) was significantly higher than MLSSc (1.13±0.08 m.s − 1) while blood lactate concentration (mmol.L − 1) was similar between the 2 conditions (4.3±1.1 and 4.4±1.5, respectively). The increase in SR and decreases in DS and SI were significant during MLSSi, 102.5% MLSSc and 102.5% MLSSi. During MLSSc, DS also decreased significantly (− 3.6%) but with no change in SR or SI. Thus, stroking technique of regional-level competitive swimmers changes over time when they swim at or above MLSS. This is the case during both continuous and intermittent swimming, despite steady state blood lactate concentrations.

Key words

swim technique - endurance - training - lactataemia
 

  • References

  • 1 Alberty M, Sidney M, Huot-Marchand F, Hespel JM, Pelayo P. Intracyclic velocity variations and arm coordination during exhaustive exercise in front crawl stroke. Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 471-475
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Alberty M, Sidney M, Pelayo P, Toussaint HM. Stroking characteristics during time to exhaustion tests. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2009; 41: 637-644
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Beneke R. Anaerobic threshold, individual anaerobic threshold, and maximal lactate steady-state in rowing. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 863-867
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Beneke R. Methodological aspects of maximal lactate steady state – implications for performance testing. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 89: 95-99
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Beneke R, Leithauser RM, Hutler M. Dependence of the maximal lactate steady state on the motor pattern of exercise. Br J Sports Med 2001; 35: 192-196
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Beneke R, Hutler M, Von Duvillard SP, Sellens M, Leithauser RM. Effect of test interruptions on blood lactate during constant workload testing. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 1626-1630
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Billat V, Sirvent P, Lepretre PM, Koralsztein JP. Training effect on performance, substrate balance and blood lactate concentration at maximal lactate steady state in master endurance-runners. Pflugers Archiv 2004; 447: 875-883
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Burnley M, Doust JH, Vanhatalo A. A 3-min all-out test to determine peak oxygen uptake and the maximal steady state. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 1995-2003
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Capelli C, Pendergast DR, Termin B. Energetics of swimming at maximal speeds. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 78: 385-393
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Cairns SP. Lactic acid and exercise performance: culprit or friend?. Sports Med 2006; 36: 279-291
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Chatard JC, Lavoie JM, Lacour JR. Analysis of determinants of swimming economy in front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 61: 88-92
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Chatard J, Collomp C, Maglischo E, Maglischo C. Swimming skill and stroking characteristics of front crawl swimmers. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 156-161
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Chollet D, Pelayo P, Delaplace C, Tourny C, Sidney M. Stroking characteristic variations in the 100-m freestyle for male swimmers of differing skill. Percept Mot Skills 1997; 85: 167-177
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Chollet D, Pelayo P. Effect of different methodologies in calculating stroke length in swimming. J Hum Mov Studies 1999; 36: 127-136
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Chollet D, Chalies S, Chatard JC. A new index of coordination for the crawl: description and usefulness. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 54-59
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Costill D, Kovaleski J, Porter D, Kirwan J, Fielding R, King D. Energy expenditure during front crawl swimming: predicting success in middle distance events. Int J Sports Med 1985; 6: 266-270
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Costill DL, Maglischo EW, Richardson AB. Swimming. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1992
    Google Scholar
  • 18 Craig AB, Skehan PL, Pawelczyk JA, Boomer WL. Velocity, stroke rate, and distance per stroke during elite swimming competition. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1985; 17: 625-634
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Daniels J, Scardina N. Interval training and performance. Sports Med 1984; 1: 327-334
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Dekerle J, Nesi X, Lefevre T, Depretz S, Sidney M, Marchand FH, Pelayo P. Stroking parameters in front crawl swimming and maximal lactate steady state speed. Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 53-58
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Dekerle J, Pelayo P, Clipet B, Depretz S, Lefevre T, Sidney M. Critical swimming speed does not represent the speed at maximal lactate steady state. Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 524-530
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Di Prampero P. The energy cost of human locomotion on land and in water. Int J Sports Med 1992; 7: 55-72
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Elliott BC, Roberts AD. A biomechanical evaluation of the role of fatigue in middle-distance running. Can J Appl Sport Sci 1980; 5: 203-207
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Green HJ. Mechanisms of muscle fatigue in intense exercise. J Sports Sci 1997; 15: 247-256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Grimston SK, Hay JG. Relationships among anthropometric and stroking characteristics of college swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1986; 18: 60-68
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Harriss DJ, Atkinson G. Update – Ethical standards in sport and exercise science research. Int J Sports Med 2011; 32: 819-821
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Hausswirth C, Bigard AX, Guezennec CY. Relationships between running mechanics and energy cost of running at the end of a triathlon and a marathon. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18: 330-339
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Hollander AP, De Groot G, van Ingen Schenau GJ, Toussaint HM, De Best H, Peeters W, Meulemans A, Schreurs AW. Measurement of active drag during crawl arm stroke swimming. J Sports Sci 1986; 4: 21-30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Jones AM, Vanhatalo A, Burnley M, Morton RH, Poole DC. Critical power. Implications, for determination of VO2max and exercise tolerance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2010; 42: 1876-1890
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Keskinen KL, Komi PV. Interaction between aerobic/anaerobic loading and biomechanical performance in free style swimming. In: Ungerechts BE, Wilke K, Reische K. (eds.). Swimming V, International Series on Sport Sciences. Vol 18. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 1988: 285-293
    Google Scholar
  • 31 Keskinen KL, Komi PV. The stroking characteristics in four different exercises in free style swimming. In: De Groot G, Hollander AP, Huijing PA, Van Ingen Schenau GJ. (eds.). Biomechanics XI-B, International Series on Biomechanics. Vol. 7-B. Amsterdam: Free University Press; 1988: 839-843
    Google Scholar
  • 32 Keskinen KL, Komi PV. Stroking characteristics of front crawl swimming during exercise. J Appl Biomech 1993; 9: 219-226
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Kolmogorov SV, Duplischeva OA. Active drag, useful mechanical power output and hydrodynamic force coefficient in different swimming strokes at maximal velocity. J Biomech 1992; 25: 311-318
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Lamb GD, Stephenson DG, Bangsbo J, Juel C. Point:Counterpoint: Lactic acid accumulation is an advantage/disadvantage during muscle activity. J Appl Physiol 2006; 100: 1410-1412
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Laursen PB, Jenkins DG. The scientific basis for high-intensity interval training. Optimising training programmes and maximising performance in highly trained endurance athletes. Sports Med 2002; 32: 53-73
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Lavoie JM, Montpetit RR. Applied physiology in swimming. Sports Med 1986; 3: 165-189
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Lepers R, Hausswirth C, Maffuletti N, Brisswalter J, van Hoecke J. Evidence of neuromuscular fatigue after prolonged cycling exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1800-1886
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Lindinger MI, Brooks GA, Henderson GC, Hashimoto T, Mau T, Fattor JA, Horning MA, Hussien R, Cho HS, Faghihnia N, Zarins Z, Gladden LB, Hogan MC, Vissing J, Tupling R. Point:Counterpoint Comments: Lactic acid accumulation is an advantage/disadvantage during muscle activity. J Appl Physiol 2006; 100: 2100-2102
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Linossier MT, Denis C, Dormois D, Geyssant A, Lacour JR. Ergometric and metabolic adaptation to a 5-s sprint training programme. Eur J Appl Physiol 1993; 67: 408-414
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Maglischo EW. Swimming Fastest. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics; 2003
    Google Scholar
  • 41 Millet GP, Chollet D, Chalies S, Chatard JC. Coordination in front crawl in elite triathletes and elite swimmers. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23: 1-6
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Olbrecht J, Madsen O, Mader A, Liesel H, Hollman W. Relationship between swimming velocity and acid lactic concentration during continuous and intermittent training exercise. Int J Sports Med 1985; 6: 74-77
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Pelarigo JG, Denadai BS, Greco CC. Stroke phases around maximal lactate steady state in front crawl. J Sci Med Sport 2011; 14: 168e1-168e5
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Pelayo P, Alberty M, Sidney M, Potdevin F, Dekerle J. Aerobic potential, stroke parameters, and coordination in swimming front-crawl performance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2007; 2: 347-359
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Philp A, Macdonald AL, Carter H, Watt PW, Pringle JS. Maximal lactate steady state as a training stimulus. Int J Sports Med 2008; 29: 475-479
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Poole DC, Ward SA, Gardner GW, Whipp BJ. Metabolic and respiratory profile of the upper limit for prolonged exercise in man. Ergonomics 1988; 31: 1265-1279
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Psycharakis SG, Cooke CB, Paradisis GP, O’Hara J, Phillips G. Analysis of selected kinematic and physiological performance determinants during incremental testing in elite swimmers. J Strength Cond Res 2008; 22: 951-957
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Schnitzler C, Ernwein V, Seifert I, Chollet D. Comparison of spatio-temporal, metabolic, and psychometric responses in recreational and highly trained swimmers during and after a 400-m freestyle swim. Int J Sports Med 2007; 28: 164-171
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Stirn I, Jarm T, Kapus V, Strojnik V. Evaluation of muscle fatigue during 100-m front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 111: 101-113
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Seifert L, Chollet D, Bardy BG. Effect of swimming velocity on arm coordination in the front crawl: a dynamic analysis. J Sports Sci 2004; 22: 651-660
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Toussaint HM, Beek PJ. Biomechanics of competitive front crawl swimming. Sports Med 1992; 13: 8-24
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Toussaint HM, De Groot G, Savelberg C, Vervoorn K, Hollander A, van Ingen Schenau G. Active drag related to velocity in male and female swimmers. J Biomech 1988; 21: 435-438
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Vercruyssen F, Brisswalter J, Hausswirth C, Bernard T, Bernard O, Vallier JM. Influence of cycling cadence on subsequent running performance in triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 530-536
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Yoshida T, Watari H, Tagawa K. Effects of active and passive recoveries on splitting of the inorganic phosphate peak determined by 31P-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. NMR Biomed 1996; 9: 13-19
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar